Plant Science Exam 4 Flashcards
Floriculture
Floriculture is a branch of horticulture that specializes in the cultivation of flowering and ornamental crops for gardens and the floristry industry.
What crop has best wholesale value?
Annual bedding/Garden plants
Floriculture crops include:
Bedding plants
Houseplants/tropical’s
Potted plants
Cut flowers
Vegetable and herb starts
Ornamentals for the landscape industry, including perennials
Career paths in Floriculture
Research
Education
Production
Writing/Communication
Sales/Marketing
Public space
Owner/Entrepreneur
Floriculture Starts
- Sexual – Seeds
- Asexual – cuttings or starts
Light
Artificial light
Natural light
Floriculture Inputs
Light
Water
Temperature
Chemicals
Light Requirements
Plants are often listed under one of the following types of light requirement:
Full sun
Partial sun
Partial shade
Full shade.
Design Process
The design process starts when the idea for a landscape project is first conceived, and can be broken down into five phases:
Research
Design
Installation
Maintenance
Evaluation.
Wind
Newly planted trees in exposed, windy areas may require staking to help establishment.
In windy areas, herbaceous plants may be shorter or go dormant earlier.
Staking might be required to keep flowers on tall plants from falling over.
Types of Irrigation
Types of Irrigation
Flood
Drip
Mist
Hose
Plant Selection
Right plant, right place” is a phrase horticulturists use frequently when discussing landscape plants
How plants will be utilized & functions they will have in the landscape play a vital role in plant choice.
Many environmental factors must be considered before choosing any plant.
Landscape History
The earliest gardens recorded contained plants for foods & medicines—in pleasing arrangements.
Landscapes for beatification and recreation began very early in human history, even if reserved for the wealthy & powerful
Functions of Plants
Plants serve aesthetic, architectural & environmental protection/modification purposes in the landscape
Most often the aesthetic purpose of plants is what people think of when selecting plants
Architecturally plants create space.
Walls, ceilings and even floors of outdoor rooms can be formed by plants
Protection- modify flow of traffic
Also serve as a screen or fence, or as a barrier to keep pedestrians away from traffic right-of-ways
Moisture
Moisture requirements vary in landscape plants from water lovers to xeriscape plants
Irrigation can be added to landscaping
Most landscapes once established can survive on normal rainfall
Landscapes with high water use are often commercial plantings with harsh surrounding environments
Sustainable Landscape Practices
Conservation of water, energy, and soil is somethingthat can be accomplished in any landscape.
Soil conservation in landscaping includes using plants to control water and wind erosion
Plants that provide food and shelter for wildlife increase biodiversity of the landscape ecosystem.
Edible plants in the landscape reduce the energy and material consumption that comes from the shippingand packaging of store-bought produce.
Added benefits to edible landscapes are fresh, healthy foods
Perennials
Herbaceous Plants that have a life expectancy of several years.
Often die back in the winter, then re-growing from the roots or crown in the spring
Used to add color and interest to landscapes
Landscape Plants
Woody Plant- bark covering the older stem- expand in girth
Ex. Trees, Shrubs
Herbaceous Plant- lacks wood and bark
Ex. Perennials
Evergreen Plant- retains foliage year round
Ex. Pine, Holly
Vines- can either be woody or herbaceous
Trees
Woody plants are permeant plantings in the landscape
Providing depth, vertical lines, and character.
It is imperative to choose trees properly & consider their lifelong characteristics
Shrubs
Woody shrubs are the base of any landscape and add color, texture and form to plantings
Often grown in containers
Annuals
Herbaceous Plants that only have a life of one year or season
Used primarily in landscapes to add color
Most have been bred or selected to grow rapidly
Landscape Maintenance
Once the landscape is installed, regular maintenance chores must be performed.
Mulching, weeding, checking for diseases &insects, staking, pinching, deadheading, and dividing arecommon garden chores for various times of the year
Climate- Available Water
Fruit plants require adequate soil moisture in the growing season to maintain vegetative growth & to produce a full crop of quality fruits
Rainfall history has to be evaluated
Location of irrigation wells or irrigation ponds
High water tables are usually unsuitable, as only the soil mass above the water table is available for root development
Irrigation Water
Water shortages in the last 30 days before harvest can significantly reduce fruit size & quality, and increase fruit disorders.
For some fruit crops, irrigation systems are also necessary as a means to avoid spring frosts during flowering.
Establishment Costs
Certain costs are to be considered in establishing & maintaining an orchard, vineyard, or berry planting.
Many occur during the planting’s establishment
Time from planting to first production can be one season for annually produced strawberries.
Or greater than four or five years for apples, pears, cherries, and many nut crops.
Climate- Temperature
Evaluate minimum recorded temperature
Length and timing of the growing and dormant seasons
They may influence accumulation of heat or chilling units
They determine likelihood that maturing fruit or flowerswill experience damaging temperatures.
Wind- Damage, bees, windbreaks
Flowering- Fruiting Process
Four steps critical to production of large quantitiesof high-quality fruits and nuts.
Initiation of flower buds in the summer, followed by development of a physiological “resting” condition.
Flower opening and pollination in the spring.
Fertilization of the egg in the flower - fruit
Maturation of fruit and seed (nuts).
Cultivar Selection
Factors that influence cultivar selection
Flowering and fruiting characteristics- abundance of flower buds can result in small fruit
Dormancy or chilling requirements
Cross Pollinated vs. Self- Pollinated
Disease resistance
Insect resistance
Winter hardiness
Ripening period
Post harvest holding/maturing
Flower Initiation
Horticultural practices that optimize the physiological condition of the plant during the initiation period ensure adequate fruit production for the nextfruiting season
Pollination and Pollinators
Fruit species with large, showy flowers generally depend on insects to transfer pollen.
Some fruit plants, especially those with nonshowy flowers, are wind-pollinated.
Temperature is important factor during all stages of pollination, pollen tube growth, fertilization & fruiting.
60°- 80°F is considered optimum for deciduous fruits
Temperatures dropping to 27°F can kill ovules in open flowers of most fruit species
Pollen grains themselves are quite stable at low temperatures—when dry, they can be kept viablefor years at 0°F
Land and Soil Characteristics
Slope of the land is important—topography should be relatively even, without nondraining depressions.
No more than 10% grades
Ideal orchard soil should be a deep, well-drained, nonsaline, fertile silty loam to a fine sandy loam.
A rooting depth of 2 - 3 feet is usually adequate.
There should be no impervious hardpans or claypans.
Bud Rest and Chilling Requirements
Once flower parts are fully formed, the buds enter a physiological rest period—in which they won’t open.
Even if the plants are subjected to favorable temperature, moisture, and light conditions
An evolutionary development that increases the plants’ chances of survival through the winter.
Pollinators
Orchards with large numbers of trees that require cross pollination will need to bees brought in.
Hives are placed in an orchard 500 to 600 ft apart.
Bees generally stay within about a 100-yard radius of hives.
Planting and Culture
Between-row spacing & row orientation should allow for ample sunlight penetration and air movement.
Wide enough to accommodate tractors, spray rigs, and harvesting equipment.
But protect against potentially damaging winds/erosion
Training and Pruning
Training is a procedure that results in positioning of limbs, branches, or canes.
Pruning is the act of cutting limbs, branches, or canes.
Fruit Thinning
Final fruit size more or less depends on the leaf–fruit ratio on a branch—the more leaves per fruit, the larger the final fruit size.
Fruit size is increased at the expense of total yield.
But thinning can be highly profitable where a premium is paid for larger-size fruits.
Importance of Vegetable Production
Vegetables are a prime, convenient, and natural source of minerals, vitamins, fiber, and energy.
A diet rich in vegetables can also apparently reducethe risk of the onset of diseases and disorders
Fruit Harvest
Mechanical
Hand
Vegetable Production
Most vegetables we eat are grown on commercial farms and perhaps are processed in factories.
Economies throughout the U.S. & world are based on income from vegetables & vegetable products.
Imports of Fresh, dried and preserved Vegetables = 5.5 Billion in 2015
Exports of Fresh, dried and preserved Vegetables = 1.6 Billion in 2015
Congressional Research Service- The US Trade Situation for Fruit and Vegetable Products, December1, 2016
Top Vegetable Production States
California 1,027,300 AC
Minnesota 179,100 AC
Washington 177,500 AC
Florida 170,000 AC
Arizona 125,000 AC
Conventional Production- Open field
Conventional growing methods include raising crops
Soil
Pesticide use
Treated, hybrid seed and GMO seed
Fertilizers that are usually synthetic
Steps in Vegetable Production
Successful vegetable farmers must follow principles integral to the success of other types of businesses
Studying the market—being prepared to meet requirements.
Producing a high-quality product efficiently
Packaging the product appropriately, and deliveringon time.
Innovating.
Climate Controlled
Temperatures in a high tunnel in northern Ohio in February may closely resemble normal outside temperatures typical of parts of Tennessee.
Semiprotected vegetable production is becoming common
Organic Production
Organic agriculture has been defined as:
“…an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity”
Certified organic status requires payment and extensive documentation of production practices.
Organic farming/gardening involves strong reliance on cultural practices and biological principles for weed, disease, pest, and nutrient management.
Demand for organic vegetables has risen dramaticallyin the past two decades.
Site Preparation
Drainage must be checked—improved, if necessary.
Tile, raised beds or leveling land can improve drainage.
Plowing, disking, and other tillage is often needed.
Preparing soil usually involves fertilizer & steps to minimize weeds and soil-borne diseases and pests
Site Selection
Factors important in site selection include:
Climate; soil type; size and total cost of the site.
Cost and ease of access to water.
Proximity to suppliers, support industries and personnel.
Types of vegetables you want to grow
Harvest
Crops are visually assessed for harvest readiness or harvest maturity—which may not be the same as plant maturity—the ability to reproduce.
Maturity – occurs when desired sugar/starch, flavor, color , etc. reach the desired point
Vegetables that continue to mature after harvest can be harvested slightly immature, when it is firmer and less easily bruised during harvest and transport.
Such as tomatoes
If harvesting stops maturation, that vegetable must be harvested when it is at harvest maturity
Variety Selection
Variety selection is key for all vegetable growers.
Varieties differ in their ability to withstand abioticand biotic stress.
3rd Worst Foodborne Illness
Cantaloupeswere the culprit in the second-deadliest foodborne illness outbreak in recent U.S. history. 146 were sickened and 30 died after eating the melon from Holly, Colorado-based Jensen Farms, which had shipped to 25 states. Jensen Farms recalled the entire crop of 300,000 cantaloupes that it had distributed to chain stores including Wal-Mart, but by then it was too late
Grazing
The objective in grazing is to match forage production to livestock nutritional requirements.
Most important is matching stocking rate to production.
Short-term deficits in forage production are usually met by feeding stored forage.
Long-term deficits in forage production result in deterioration of the forage and soil resource.
Over-stocking or overgrazing.
Forage
Defined as leaves & digestible stems that can be feed to livestock either through grazing or hay
Most forage and rangeland species are perennial plants, and part of year-round production systems.
Required to support livestock for successive years
Only through consumption of plants by livestockare biological and financial production captured.
Continuous Grazing
Continuous Grazing involves the allocation of livestock to a fixed area for a prolonged period.
A carefully managed situation, sufficient mass & growth rate of forage support livestock for the required period.
Used primarily in the western states—few animalson a large area of land.
Rotational Grazing
Rotational Grazing is moving livestock between pastures according to a prescribed strategy.
Once all pastures have been grazed, livestock return to the first pasture, which has had sufficient time to regrow
Used primarily in intensive grazing—a high population of animals on relatively small amount of land.
Dry Forage- Hay
Hay—is defined as shoots & leaves (sometimes flowers, fruits & seeds) of forage plants preserved by field drying, stored for future feeding.
Usually consists of grasses, legumes, or a combination.
Proper dehydration is important to preserve quality and prevent fires from spontaneous combustion of wet hay.
Properly dried & stored, it can be kept for several years.
The best quality U.S. hay is usually made from alfalfa.
The greatest quantity is made from grasses (meadow hay).
In general, the best time to harvest for maximum yieldand acceptable quality is just prior to heading (seed development).
Hay can often be harvested several times a season.
Some crops, such as timothy, give one or two harvests per growing season, others, such as alfalfa, give three to ten
Hay quality is determined by plant maturity, color, leafiness, odor, and amount of foreign material.
High-quality hay has a fresh green color, good aroma, and a pliable texture—it is nutritious, digestible, and palatable
Process of harvesting hay
Hay is cut, and laid down in windrows
Hay dries or cures for 2-5 days
Hay is raked, this turns hay over and combines hay into windrows
Hay is baled, either in square bales or round bales
Forage- Moist Silage
Silage—is moist forage, preserved by bacterial fermentation under anaerobic conditions.
A European practice dating back many hundreds of years.
The first silo was constructed in the U.S. in 1876
Silage fermentation by direct cut method uses green chopped forage material—at 60 to 70% moisture.
Silos for silage must be airtight structures.
Vertical or horizontal; concrete or glass-coated steel plate; large plastic,baglike containers or trenches in the ground
After oxygen in tightly packed chopped material is used by plant respiration anaerobic bacteria act on plant tissue carbohydrates to form lactic acid.
This essentially ferments the material & pH drops to 4.2 or below, inhibiting spoilage bacteria and enzyme action.
Silage can be kept for several years if air is kept out, moisture stays high, and the pH remains below 4.2
Conserved Forage - Moist Silage
A variation is haylage—when green forage is cut & laid in the field to wilt to about 45 to 50% moisture.
It is then picked up, chopped, and blown into the silo.
Forage- Moist Silage (Balage)
Balage- since the mid-1990s, farmers have the option of replacing silos with plastic-wrapped bales.
A variation is wrapping many round bales within a continuous plastic tube in a single row.
Wrapped bales are weather resistant, allowing a shorter drying period compared to hay.
And they can be transported.
Fermentation process is similar, but less efficient than in silos, as more air (O2) is usually present in bales than in a well-packed silo.
Forage Quality
Quality of forage is affected primarily by the amount of fiber it contains and its digestibility:
Pectin & hemicellulose—moderately digestible by livestock.
Cellulose—poorly digestible by non-ruminant livestock.
Lignin—indigestible.
Total fiber is lab-measured using neutral detergent fiber (NDF) digestion
Protein content, nutrients, and vitamins also affect overall forage quality—but have less effect on forage value than does fiber content and digestibility
Main plant factors affecting forage fiber & quality:
Forage Species
Leaf-to-stem ratio
Maturity
Forage Quality
Forage species—vary in fiber & chemical composition of that fiber.
Legumes generally produce better quality forage than grasses.
Leaf-to-stem ratio—almost without exception, stems have higher fiber (lower quality) than leaves.
Maturity—as forages mature, yield increases & quality declines.
Stem yield increases dramatically with advancing maturity, and the fiber produced (lignin) is less digestible.
Good harvesting strategy is to harvest forages prior to or right as flowering occurs.
Forage Quality
Almost every forage species can contain anti-quality components with varying toxicity to livestock.
Most legumes contain saponins that can cause bloat—rumen distortion by excess gas—which can result in death.
Ergot alkaloids (ergo valine) in some grasses cause sub-clinical growth retardation, and can cause death.
Many C4 annual species have the potential to accumulate nitrates that can be toxic to livestock.
High protein—protein in excess of 20% can result in impaired livestock growth and even abortion.
Natural estrogens—some legume species (red clover and subterranean clover) can produce natural estrogens that can impair reproductive performance of sheep and cattle.
Fescue toxicity- occurs in summer months when animals are grazing on Tall fescue. Endophyte infected grains
Loss of weight
Low conception rates
Poor offspring survival
Elevated body temperatures that causes
– Fescue foot, loss of switch
Forage Diversity
Forages/rangelands typically comprise a mixture of five to fifty species—biodiversity provides benefits.
Better tolerance of environmental stresses.
More uniform forage growth pattern & increased stand persistence.
Fewer losses of nutrients to streams and groundwater
Forage Diversity – Cool Season Grasses
C3- Cool Season Grasses:
Orchard grass
Perennial Ryegrass
Tall fescue
Smooth Brome grass
Kentucky Bluegrass
Timothy
Higher quality for livestock, moderate to poor drought tolerance, good spring/autumn production.
Moderate to low tolerance of low fertility
Forage Diversity – Legumes
Legumes—are species FABEACEAE, are vital components of most forages and rangelands
Alfalfa
Red Clover
White Clover
Birds foot trefoil
Lespedeza
Vetch
Legumes provide many useful characteristics:
Nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium bacteria.
High-digestibility, high-protein concentration in forage.
Often a growth pattern complementary to companion grass species
Forage Diversity- Warm Season Grasses
C4—warm-season grasses:
Bermuda grass
Big bluestem
Switch grass
Indian grass
Limpograss
Paspalum.
Excellent tolerance of drought & heat, high water use efficiency—many are native prairie species.
Disadvantages include difficult establishment and lower forage quality.
Benefits to Grasslands
Return of nutrients to soil
High OM- 2-5% greater than cropping systems
Soil preservation- perennial grass crops
Wildlife
Conservation
Lean beef
Ratoon cropping
When a second crop can be harvested after the first initial harvest
Used in sugarcane and rice production
Field Crop
A crop other than fruits and vegetables that is grown for agricultural purposes, grown commercially on a large scale
Cropping Sequences- Rotations
Rotations: Field crops are produced in a rotation system from year to year
usually includes alternate crops of corn and soybeans(nitrogen-fixing legume)
Advantage:
Weed control
Less disease
Less nitrogen fertilizer
Yield 10% more than continuous corn
Cropping Sequences
Rotations
No-till Cropping
Monoculture
Ratoon Cropping
Double Cropping
Intercropping
Cropping Sequences- Monoculture
Monoculture- practice of growing continuous crops in succession year after year
US corn belt
Advantages:
Favorable markets
Government support programs
Reduce need for diverse machinery
Dis-advantage:
Weed growth
Disease growth
Reduced soil fertility, reliance on chemical fertilizers
Cropping Sequences- No-till Cropping
No-till Cropping – cropping system from year to year without disturbing the soil through tillage.
Usually used in the planting of wheat, corn, soybeans
Advantage:
Less fuel, compaction, labor
Holds moisture in soil
Weed suppression
Increased soil fertility
Dis-advantage:
Harbor disease and insects
Time to see some benefits
Some increased chemical control
