Plant Science Exam 3 MSU

Question 1

Carbohydrates

Answer 1

photosynthesis begins with the creation of carbohydrates.
plants are carbohydrate rich organisms
plant carbohydrates act as a structure and energy storage for the plant.
General Formula is C(H2O)

Question 2

What are the three structural groups of carbohydrates?

Answer 2

Monosaccharides - Single carbohydrate molecules falling into two general categories: aldoses and ketoses
Disaccharides - two carbohydrate molecules linked together.
Polysaccharides - combinations of seven or more molecules linked together.

Question 3

Lipids

Answer 3

-Compound derivatives of glycerol, a simple 3-carbon molecule
-Important in cell membrane structure and for energy storage.
-hydrophobic - not soluble in water but are soluble in fats

Question 4

Proteins

Answer 4

-Long chains of linked amino acids that create complex three dimensional molecules.
- support - some proteins are strutural proteins
-metabolism - some protines are enzymes
-Storage - store units for nitrogen
-transport - chennel and carrier proteins in the plasma membrane

Question 5

Nucleic Acids

Answer 5

Nucleic acids are found in:
-DNA: acts as the location winthin cells where genetic information is stored
RNA - The molecule that aids in transcribing and translating DNA into proteins.

Question 6

what are the secondary products of plant chemistry

Answer 6

Morphine , Cocaine, Nicotine, and caffine

Question 7

what are the structures associated with photosynthesis

Answer 7

chloroplasts, thylakoid, stroma, granum

Question 8

chloroplasts

Answer 8

Chloroplasts are the organelles within plant cells where photosynthesis takes place. They are responsible for capturing light energy and converting it into chemical energy, in the form of glucose and other organic molecules.

Question 9

thylakoid

Answer 9

Thylakoids are membrane-bound compartments within the chloroplasts. They are stacked together in structures known as grana (singular: granum). Thylakoids contain the pigments and proteins necessary for the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

Question 10

stroma

Answer 10

The stroma is the fluid-filled space inside the chloroplast, surrounding the thylakoid membranes. It contains enzymes and other molecules needed for the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle) of photosynthesis. In the stroma, carbon dioxide is converted into sugars using the energy produced in the thylakoid membrane during the light-dependent reactions.

Question 11

granum

Answer 11

Grana are stacks of thylakoid membranes found inside chloroplasts. They are the sites where the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur. The pigments and protein complexes embedded in the thylakoid membranes capture light energy and convert it into chemical energy, which is used to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), essential molecules for the subsequent dark reactions in the stroma.

Question 12

redox reactions

Answer 12

• A redox reaction is often represented by a chemical equation that shows the transfer of electrons from the reducing agent to the oxidizing agent.
• The general form of a redox reaction can be written as:
  Reductant (Oxidized species) → Oxidant (Reduced species)

In a redox reaction, the reducing agent is oxidized, and the oxidizing agent is reduced. The number of electrons lost by the reducing agent is equal to the number of electrons gained by the oxidizing agent, ensuring the overall charge is conserved.

Question 13

reduction

Answer 13

• Reduction is a chemical process in which a substance gains electrons, leading to a decrease in its oxidation state or an increase in its electron density.
• The substance that undergoes reduction is called the oxidizing agent or the oxidant. It accepts electrons from other substances.

Question 14

oxidation

Answer 14

• Oxidation is a chemical process in which a substance loses electrons, resulting in an increase in its oxidation state or a decrease in its electron density.
• The substance that undergoes oxidation is called the reducing agent or the reductant. It provides electrons to other substances.

Question 15

What is the Z scheme

Answer 15

The Z scheme is a model used to explain the flow of electrons during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. It is named after its shape, which resembles the letter “Z.” This model describes how electrons move through two photosystems, Photosystem II (PSII) and Photosystem I (PSI), during the process of electron transport in the thylakoid membrane.

Question 16

how is ATP produced during photosynthesis

Answer 16

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is produced during the process of photosynthesis, which occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells and some other photosynthetic organisms. Photosynthesis is a complex biochemical process that converts light energy from the sun into chemical energy stored in ATP and glucose. The production of ATP during photosynthesis involves two main stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle).

Question 17

what is a calvin cycle reaction

Answer 17

Occurs in the Stroma of Chloroplasts
Uses CO2 from the atmosphere
Consists of three steps

1. CO2 fixation
2. CO2 reduction
3. Regeneration of RuBP(ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate)
   The reaction produces molecules of G3P (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate) that plants use to produce glucose
   Calvin Cycle requires a lot of energy- energy that comes from the light reactions production of ATP and NADPH
   The Calvin Cycle requires no solar energy to occur

Question 18

what is ruBP

Answer 18

RuBP stands for ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, which is a key molecule in the Calvin cycle, a series of chemical reactions that take place during the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis. The Calvin cycle is responsible for converting carbon dioxide (CO2) into glucose and other organic compounds, thereby storing energy in the form of chemical bonds.

Question 19

Explain the differences in C3 vs C4 vs CAMRespiration?

Answer 19

In summary, the structural differences between C3, C4, and CAM plants are primarily related to the leaf anatomy and the cellular arrangements that optimize carbon fixation, storage, and water use in different environmental conditions. While all three pathways involve cellular respiration for energy production, C4 and CAM plants have evolved to be more water-efficient compared to C3 plants, making them better suited for arid and water-limited environments.

Question 20

Mitochondria

Answer 20

Mitochondria are double-membraned organelles found in the cells of eukaryotic organisms. They are often referred to as the “powerhouses of the cell” because they are primarily responsible for producing energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through a process called cellular respiration. Mitochondria have several structural components, including the matrix and cristae.

Question 21

Matrix vs Cristae

Answer 21

The matrix is the innermost compartment and serves as the site for many metabolic reactions, including ATP production. The cristae are folded inner mitochondrial membranes that increase the surface area for the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis, playing a crucial role in energy generation within the cell. Mitochondria are vital organelles for energy production and are found in various cell types, including muscle cells, where high energy demands exist.

Question 22

what are the 4 phases of cellular respiration and how much ATP is produced in each phase?

Answer 22

Glycolysis
preparatory reaction
Citric Acid Cycle
Electron Transport Chain

Question 23

glycolysis

Answer 23

Glycolysis: is the first step of cellular respiration. It begins with the breakdown of one molecule of glucose (a 6-carbon sugar) into two molecules of pyruvate (a 3-carbon compound) through a series of enzymatic reactions.

Question 24

prepatory reaction

Answer 24

preparatory reaction: each pyruvate molecule produced in glycolysis is transported from the cytoplasm into the mitochondria.

Question 25

citric acid cycle

Answer 25

Citric Acid Cycle:the two-carbon acetyl group combines with a four-carbon compound to form citric acid.

Question 26

electron transport chain

Answer 26

Electron Transport Chain: responsible for generating the majority of ATP during cellular respiration. It produces approximately 32-34 ATP molecules (estimated) per glucose molecule.

Question 27

chromosomes: what are they and how do you count them?

Answer 27

Chromosomes are thread-like structures found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, such as those in animals, plants, and fungi. They are composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and associated proteins, and they carry genetic information. Chromosomes are essential for the organization, replication, and inheritance of genetic material. Here’s an overview of chromosomes and how they are counted:

Question 28

Dominant vs Recessive genes

Answer 28

It’s important to note that the expression of traits is governed by the interaction of dominant and recessive alleles and is subject to Mendel’s laws of inheritance. Additionally, while the terms “dominant” and “recessive” are used to describe alleles that determine simple Mendelian traits, many traits are influenced by multiple genes, and the patterns of inheritance can be more complex, involving co-dominance, incomplete dominance, or gene interactions.

Question 29

Alleles

Answer 29

Alleles are alternative forms or variations of a gene, which is a segment of DNA that carries the instructions for a specific trait or characteristic. Each individual inherits two alleles for each gene, one from each parent, and these alleles can be either identical (homozygous) or different (heterozygous). Here are some key points about alleles:

Question 30

Mitosis

Answer 30

Mitosis is a type of cell division that ensures the accurate and equal distribution of genetic material (chromosomes) from a parent cell to two identical daughter cells. Mitosis consists of several distinct phases, which can be remembered using the acronym “PMAT,” representing Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. Here’s an overview of what happens in each phase:

Question 31

what are the mitosis phases? (pmat) and what is happening in each?

Answer 31

-prophase
-metaphase
-Anaphase
-Telophase

Question 32

cytokinesis

Answer 32

Cytokinesis is the process in cell division that follows the completion of mitosis or meiosis, and it involves the division of the cytoplasm to produce two (in mitosis) or four (in meiosis) daughter cells. While mitosis and meiosis are primarily concerned with the division of the nucleus and the distribution of genetic material, cytokinesis ensures that the two or four daughter cells are physically separated and self-contained.

Question 33

meiosis, what are the two phases of meoisis?

Answer 33

Meiosis is a specialized type of cell division that occurs in sexually reproducing organisms and has two primary functions: to reduce the chromosome number by half and to introduce genetic diversity. Meiosis consists of two consecutive divisions, each with distinct phases, which serve these functions.

Question 34

Diploid vs Haploid

Answer 34

“Diploid” and “haploid” are terms used to describe the number of sets of chromosomes in a cell. These terms are fundamental in genetics and cell biology and have important implications for the reproductive processes and genetic diversity of organisms.

Question 35

timing of meiosis and mitosis

Answer 35

Mitosis:

• Purpose: Mitosis is the process of cell division that results in the production of two identical daughter cells. It is primarily responsible for growth, tissue repair, and the maintenance of a constant number of cells in an organism.
  Meiosis:
• Purpose: Meiosis is the process of cell division that produces haploid (n) germ cells (sperm and egg cells) for sexual reproduction. It introduces genetic diversity in offspring by creating cells with unique combinations of genetic information.

Question 36

genotype vs phenotype

Answer 36

The genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an organism, which is the complete set of genes it carries within its DNA. Genes are segments of DNA that encode specific traits or characteristics.
The phenotype refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism resulting from its genotype and the interaction with its environment. In other words, the phenotype is what you can see, measure, or observe in an individual.

Question 37

breeding vs genetic engineering

Answer 37

Breeding is a controlled and selective process used in agriculture, animal husbandry, and horticulture to produce offspring with specific desirable traits or characteristics. It involves the deliberate mating of two parent organisms with the aim of promoting certain genetic traits in their progeny.
Genetic engineering, also known as genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is a biotechnological process that involves the deliberate alteration of an organism’s genetic material (DNA) to introduce specific, desired traits or characteristics.

Question 38

what are the two forms of propagation?

Answer 38

Sexual (seed) and Asexual (vegetative)

Question 39

what are the steps in seed propagation, imbibition, activation, growth/development

Answer 39

1. Imbibition:
   
   • Imbibition is the initial step in seed germination.
   • It refers to the process of water absorption by a dry seed.
   • During imbibition, water penetrates the seed coat, causing it to swell and soften.
   • The absorption of water rehydrates the seed and activates various metabolic processes within the seed.
2. Activation:
   
   • Activation involves the reawakening of the seed’s metabolic activities, which have been in a dormant state.
   • Several biochemical and physiological changes occur during activation, including:
     
     • Enzyme activation: The absorbed water activates enzymes within the seed that are responsible for breaking down stored nutrients (e.g., starch, proteins) into usable forms, such as sugars and amino acids.
     • Respiration: The seed begins to undergo respiration, using the stored nutrients and oxygen to generate energy for growth.
     • Hormonal changes: The activation of hormones, particularly gibberellins, triggers the initiation of growth processes in the seed.
     • Radicle emergence: The radicle (embryonic root) typically emerges first, followed by the shoot (plumule).

Question 40

what are the four classes of of the US process of seed certification

Answer 40

Breeder seed—produced in small amounts, under the control of the plant breeder, to produce foundation seed.

Foundation seed—multiplied from breeder seed, available in limited amounts, planted to produce registered seed. Controlled by public/private foundation seed stock organizations.

Registered seed—seed source for growers of certified seed, under the control of the registered seed producers. The progeny of either breeder or foundation seed.

Certified seed—is of known genetic identity & purity, available in large quantities, sold to farmers for general crop production.

Question 41

seed storage, seed dormancy, and methods of overcoming dormancy

Answer 41

Seed Storage

For a seed to germinate, the embryo must be alive.
Some are very short-lived, viable only a few days/months.
Willow, maple, and elm.
Others generally remains alive for a great many years.
Such as hard-seeded legumes.
Length of viability can depend on storage conditions.
Seeds stored in a sealed container under refrigerationat low relative humidity generally retain viability longer

Question 42

vegetative propagation

Answer 42

appear any place other than from the radicle (root tip) of the seed or its branches

Question 43

adventitious roots

Answer 43

those appearing any place other than shoot terminals or axils of leaves

Question 44

adventitious shoots

Answer 44

a mass of undifferentiated, proliferating parenchyma cells

Question 45

callus

Answer 45

a mass of undifferentiated, proliferating parenchyma cells

Question 46

what are the vegetative propagation methods?

Answer 46

Cuttings, runners and stolons, suckers, offsets, bulb division, corms and tubers, layering, grafting, tissue culture, and budding