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A2 Biology > Plant And Animal Responses > Flashcards

Plant And Animal Responses Flashcards

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1
Q

What alters the frequency of the excision waves?

A

The cardiovascular centre

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2
Q

Where do you find the cardiovascular centre?

A

In the medulla oblongata

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3
Q

What are the 2 nerves that alter heart rate?

A

Accelerans and Vagus

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4
Q

Which neurotransmitter increases heart rate?

A

Noradrenaline

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5
Q

Which neurotransmitter decreases heart rate?

A

Acetylcholine

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6
Q

Which neurotransmitter is released by the vagus nerve?

A

Acetylcholine

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7
Q

Which neurotransmitter is released by the accelerans nerve?

A

Noradrenaline

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8
Q

What is the function of the cardiovascular centre?

A

To coordinate an appropriate output to effect the heart rate when inputs from environment are received

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9
Q

What are the two input receptors to the cardiovascular centre?

A

Chemoreceptors

Stretch receptors

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10
Q

Where can stretch receptors be found?

A

In the muscles and carotid sinus

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11
Q

What is the function of the stretch receptors in the muscle?

A

They detect movement of limbs. To inform that extra oxygen may be needed. Leads to an increase in heart rate.

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12
Q

Function of chemoreceptors?

A

Monitor pH of blood

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13
Q

Where are chemoreceptors found?

A

In the carotid artery

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14
Q

Where is the carotid sinus?

A

In the carotid artery

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15
Q

Example of when chemoreceptors will send action potentials?

A

During exercise more carbon dioxide is produced from respiration. This combines with water to make a weak carbonic acid. Chemoreceptors will send action potential to increase heart rate.

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16
Q

Fuction of stretch receptors in carotid sinus?

A

Monitors blood pressure

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17
Q

How do stretch receptors respond?

A

If blood pressure becomes too high the stretch receptors will send action potential to lower heart rate

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18
Q

What are the 3 types of muscle?

A

Skeletal, cardiac and involuntary

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19
Q

Other words for skeletal muscle?

A

Striated or voluntary

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20
Q

Describe Involuntary smooth muscle diagram?

A

Individual cells- each containing a nucleus and bundles of actin and myosin
Spindle shaped
At rest- 500 micrometers long and 5 micrometers wide

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21
Q

Describe involuntary muscle contractions?

A

Contracts slowly and regularly. Does not tire quickly.

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22
Q

What system controls smooth muscle?

A

The autonomic system

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23
Q

Where is involuntary muscle found?

A

In the walls of tubular structures

Eg- blood vessels and digestive system

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24
Q

How is involuntary muscle arranged?

A

In longitudinal and circular layers that oppose eachother

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25
Q

Describe cardiac muscle?

A

Individual cells form fibres which branch to form cross bridges

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26
Q

Why is cardiac muscle arranged the way it is?

A

The cross bridges ensure that electrical stimulation spreads evenly over the walls and chambers. Also to ensure a squeezing action.

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27
Q

How are the cells in cardiac muscle joined?

A

By intercalated discs

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28
Q

What are intercalated discs?

A

Specialised cell surface membranes fused to produce gap junctions to allow diffusion between cells

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29
Q

Function of intercalated discs?

A

Allow for rapid pass of action potentials across the cardiac muscle fibres

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30
Q

Other facts about cardiac muscle?

A

Myogenic

Doesn’t fatigue easily

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31
Q

How does skeletal muscle cause movement?

A

Contraction of the muscle causes bending or straightening of the joint

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32
Q

How is skeletal muscle arranged?

A

In antagonist pairs

When one contacts the other elongates

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33
Q

Describe the skeletal muscle cells?

A

Contains sarcoplasm
Many mitochondria
An extensive sarcoplasmic reticulum

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34
Q

Describe the skeletal muscle fibres?

A

100 micrometers in diameter
Multinucleate
Surrounded by a membrane called sarcolemmaa

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35
Q

How are the skeletal fibres arranged?

A

Into myofibrils- divided into a chin of subunits called sarcomeres

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36
Q

How are actin and myosin arranged?

A

In a banded pattern

Gives striated appearance

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37
Q

How does skeletal muscle contract?

A

Quickly and powerfully

Fatigues easily

38
Q

What are the 2 types of protein filaments?

A

Thin filaments- light band

Thick filaments- dark band

39
Q

What does the z line do?

A

Holds together the thin filaments

40
Q

Do the filaments overlap?

A

Yes, except in the middle of the dark band (the H zone)

41
Q

What is the distance between two z lines?

A

Sarcomere

42
Q

What are the filaments surrounded by?

A

A sarcoplasmic reticulum

43
Q

What are the thin filaments?

A

Actin

44
Q

What other molecules does the thin filaments consist of?

A

Troponin

Tropomysin

45
Q

Describe troponin?

A

Globular protein

Consists of 3 polypeptides

46
Q

Function of troponin?

A

Has 3 binding sites to bind to actin, tropomysin, and calcium

47
Q

What is tropomyosin?

A

Wound around actin

48
Q

At rest what do troponin and tropomysin do?

A

Cover the binding sites

49
Q

What does the thin filament consist of?

A

Bundle of myosin molecules

50
Q

Describe the myosin molecules?

A

Has a mobile protruding head at each end

51
Q

Why are the myosin heads mobile?

A

To bind to actin molecule binding sites when exposed

52
Q

Sliding filament hypothesis?

A

Light bands and H zone shortens, z bands get closer, sarcomere gets shorter
Thin and thick filaments slide past eachother

53
Q

Stimulation of contraction step 1?

A

Action potential arrives at axon which causes calcium ion channels to open

54
Q

Stimulation of contraction step 2?

A

Vesicles containing acetylcholine fuse with membrane

55
Q

Stimulation of contraction step 3?

A

Acetylcholine molecules diffuse across gap and fuse with sarcolemma receptors

56
Q

Stimulation of contraction step 4?

A

Sodium ion channels open. Sodium ions enter the muscle fibres causing depolarisation of the sarcolemma

57
Q

Stimulation of contraction step 5?

A

The wave of depolarising travels down tubules

58
Q

Which system stimulates the skeletal system?

A

Somatic

59
Q

What is the neuromuscular junction?

A

The junction between the nervous system and muscle

60
Q

What is a mortor unit?

A

When many motor neurones divide to connect to several muscle fibres which all contract together to provide a stronger contraction

61
Q

Control of contraction step 1?

A

Arrival of action potential at sarcoplasmic reticulum causes the release of calcium ions into sarcoplasm

62
Q

Control of contraction step 2?

A

The calcium ions bind to the triopin which alters the shape causing the tropomysin to expose binding sites

63
Q

Control of contraction step 3?

A

Myosin head binds to actin to form cross bridges between fibres

64
Q

Control of contraction step 4?

A

Myosin head tilts backwards to cause actin molecule to slide past

65
Q

What is the role of ATP in the muscle contraction?

A

The ATP is hydrolysed to ADP and inorganic phosphate to release energy allowing the myosin heads to move

66
Q

How does ATP get hydrolysed?

A

By part of the myosin head acting as ATPase

67
Q

Which 3 ways is ATP generated?

A

Aerobic respiration- many mitochondria in muscle tissue
Anaerobic respiration
Creatine phosphate

68
Q

Problem with anaerobic respiration?

A

Short term

Produces lactic acid- causes fatigue

69
Q

Where does anaerobic respiration occur?

A

In the sarcoplasm

70
Q

Where is creatine phosphate?

A

In the sarcoplasm

71
Q

How does creatine phosphate generate ATP?

A

The phosphate can be transferred to ADP molecules to form ATP

72
Q

What enzyme in involved in ATP production from Creatine phosphate?

A

Creatine photophotransferase

73
Q

Where are calcium ions stored in the muscle?

A

In the sarcoplasmic reticulum

74
Q

What must communication systems do?

A

Detect changes in the environment
Carry out cell signalling
Co-ordinate effectors
Initiate responses

75
Q

What are the divisions of the nervous system?

A

CNS

PNS

76
Q

What are the divisions of the PNS?

A

The motor system

The sensory system

77
Q

What does the motor system divide into?

A

Somatic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system

78
Q

What does the CNS divide to?

A

Brain and spinal chord

79
Q

What is the spinal chord made up of?

A

Many non-myelinated neurones.

80
Q

What is the role and composition of PNS?

A

Ensures rapid communication between sensory receptors, the CNS and effectors
Composed of motor and sensory neurones

81
Q

Describe the somatic nervous system?

A

Under voluntary control
Myelinated
One single motor neurone connecting CNS to effector

82
Q

Describe the autonomic nervous system?

A

Not voluntary
Non- myelinated
2 neurones connecting CNS to effector

83
Q

Role of sympathetic system?

A

Prepares body for activity

84
Q

Role of parasympathetic system?

A

Conserves energy

85
Q

Role of sympathetic system?

A

Increases HR and BR
Dilates pupils
Reduces digestive activity

86
Q

Role of parasympathetic system?

A

Decreases HR and BR
Constricts pupils
Increases digestive activity

87
Q

What is a reflex action?

A

A response to a stimuli which does not require brain processing to coordinate a response

88
Q

Example of reflex actions?

A

Knee jerk

Blinking

89
Q

What is a reflex arc?

A

When receptor and effector are in the same place

90
Q

What may stimulate blinking?

A

Foreign object touching the eye- corneal reflex
Sudden bright light- optical reflex
Loud sounds
Sudden movements close to the eye

91
Q

Sympathetic system?

A

Ganglia outside the CNS
Short pre-ganglionic neurones
Long post ganglionic neurones
Uses noradrenaline

92
Q

Parasympathetic system?

A

Uses acetylcholine
Short post-ganglionic neurones
Long pre-ganglionic neurones
Ganglia in effector tissue

A2 Biology (11 decks)

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