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Human Structure and Function > Physiology of the nervous system > Flashcards

Physiology of the nervous system Flashcards

1
Q

Functions of the nervous system

A

Directs immediate response to stimuli

Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems

Provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions

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2
Q

Major organs of the nervous system

A

Brain

Spinal cord

Periphal nerves

Sense organs

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3
Q

Central nervous system is made up of

A

Brain

Spinal cord

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4
Q

Periphal nervous system is made up of

A

All neurones outside of the brain and spinal cord

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5
Q

Functions of the CNS

A

Process and coordinate:

  • Sensory data
  • Motor comands
  • Higher functions of the brain such as intelligence, memory, learning and emotion
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6
Q

Functions of PNS

A

Deliver sensory information to the CNS

Carry motor comands to peripheral tissues and effectors

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7
Q

2 cell types of neural tissue

A

Neurones

Neuroglia (glial cells)

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8
Q

2 types of neural tissue matter

A

Grey matter

White matter

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9
Q

Neurones

A

Cells that send and recieve signals

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10
Q

Neuroglia

A

Glial cells

Cells that support and protect neurones

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11
Q

Types of neurones

A

Multipolar

Bipolar

Unipolar

Anaxonic

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12
Q

Examples of neuroglia

A

Ependymal cells

Astrocytes

Oligondendrocytes

Mircoglia

Schwann cells

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13
Q

Grey matter

A

Mainly cells bodies and unmyelinated neurones

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14
Q

White matter

A

Mainly axons of myenilated neurones

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15
Q

Functional classifications of neurones

A

Sensory neurones

Association neurones

Motor neurones

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16
Q

Sensory neurones

A

Afferent

From receptors to CNS

From lower to higher CNS levels

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17
Q

Interneurones

A

Association neurones

Link sensory to motor neurones

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18
Q

Motor neurones

A

Efferent

From CNS to muscles

From higher to lower CNS levels

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19
Q

Efferent autonomic nerve pathways

A

Have a 2 neurone arrangement

Pre- and post ganglionic nerve

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20
Q

Efferent somatic nerve pathway

A

Single neurone from CNS to effector

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21
Q

Which efferent pathway only has a single neurone

A

Somatic

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22
Q

Which efferent pathway has a pre and post-ganglionic nerve

A

Autonomic

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23
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

About -70mV

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24
Q

How resting membrane potential is achieved

A

Large, negatively charged proteins stuck in cell

More positive ions outside of cell

Na+/K+ pump

Membrane a lot more permeable to K+

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25
Q

Which ion is the cell membrane more permeable to

A

K+

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26
Q

The two types of force that influence the movement of ions across the plasma membrane

A

Chemical gradients

Electrical gradients

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27
Q

Chemical gradients in ion movement across membrane

A

Ions want to pass along concentration gradient - from high concentrations to low

Na+ wants to pass into cell

K+ wants to leave cell

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28
Q

Electrical gradients in the ion moevement across the cell membrane

A

Ions want to pass to areas of opposite charge

Inside of cell negatively charged so both Na+ and K+ want to enter

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29
Q

Electrochemical gradient effect on Na+ and K+ ions

A

Na+

  • Both electrical and chemical gradients attract into cell

K+

  • Oppose each other
  • Chemical attracts out
  • Electrical attracts in
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30
Q

Ion channels

A

Proteins spanning the lipid membrane

Determine the permeability to an ion

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31
Q

Types of ion channels

A

Passive

Gated

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32
Q

Passive ion channels

A

Also called leak channels

Always partially open

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33
Q

Gated ion channels

A

Open and close in response to specific stimuli

3 main types of gated channel

  • Chemically regulated
  • Voltage regulated
  • Mehcanically regulated
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34
Q

3 possible states of gated ion channels

A

Activatable

  • Closed but capable of opening

Activated

  • Open

Refractory

  • Closed and incapable of opening
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35
Q

Chemcially regulated ion channel

A

Channel opens when a chemical binds to it

Closes when the bound chemical is broken down

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36
Q

Voltage regulated ion channel

A

Reacts to changes in voltage

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37
Q

Mechanically regulated ion channel

A

Pressure causes gate to open

Closes when pressure disapears

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38
Q

1st step making a graded potential

A

Chemical neurotransmitter binds to receptor on chemically regulated Na+ channel

Channel opens

Na+ enters cell along it’s electrochemical gradient

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39
Q

What does the initial rush of Na+ ions entering the cell cause in producing a graded potential

A

Membrane becomes depolarised

This then also depolarises the adjacent mebrane

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40
Q

Stimulating and inhibiting influences on resting membrane potential

A

Stimulating

  • Stimulating neurotransmitter
  • Na+ influx
  • Depolarisation

Inhibiting

  • Inhibitory neurotransmitter
  • K+ influx
  • Hyperpolarisation
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41
Q

Are the influences on the resting membrane potential always trying to cause depolarisation?

A

No

Can also be sent an inhibitory neurotransmitter to inhibit

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42
Q

Graded potential

A

Tempory, localised change in resting potential

Caused by stimulus

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43
Q

Action potential

A

Electrical impulse and frequency signal

Produced by a graded potential that exceeds threshold

Propogates along the surface of axon to synapse

Size of action potential always the same

All or nothing principle

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44
Q

Difference between a graded potential and an action potential

A

Action potential is a result of a graded potential reaching threshold

Graded potential is localised, action potential propogates along axon

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45
Q

Anaxonic neuron

A

No axon, just dendrite

Small

Lots of dendrites

Found in brain and special sense organs

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46
Q

Bipolar neuron

A

One axon and one dendrite on opposite sides of the cell body

Occur in special sense organs

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47
Q

Unipolar neuron

A

Dendrite and axon fused and contineous

Cell body off to the side

Most neurones in the PNS and unipolar

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48
Q

Multipolar neuron

A

2 or more dendrites

Single axon

Most common type of neuron in CNS

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49
Q

Action potential sequence

A

Resting state

  1. Depolarisation to threshold
  2. Activation of Na+ channels and rapid depolarisation
  3. Innactivation of Na+ channels and activation of K+ channels
  4. Hyperpolarisation
  5. Return to normal permeability and resting state
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50
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

No stimulus can cause an action potential to be generated

Na+ channels incapable of opening

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51
Q

Relative refractory period

A

Stronger than normal stimulus is required

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52
Q

When the refractory periods occur

A
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53
Q

Na+/K+ pump

A

Pumps Na+ out

Pumps K+ in

Has ATP binding site to provide energy needed

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54
Q

How is the current set up in neurones

A

One area of membrane is depolarises membrane

Membrane potential next to this graded potential is different

This sets up the current

Size of current depends on the size of the graded potential

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55
Q

What sets up an action potential

A

The current produced by the differce between a graded potential and the membrane potential next to it

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56
Q

All or nothing principle

A

Threshold for depolarisation must be met otherwise action potential will not be generated

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57
Q

What about an action potentail can the depolarising stimulas affect

A

If it happens or not

How often an action potential is generated

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58
Q

How an action potential is propogated along the axon

A

Depolarised membrane sets up a local current because of charge difference with neighbour

Neighbour’s voltage gated Na+ channels activated, causing it to also become depolarised

Current set up by differece between the neighbour and its neighbour

Process repeats along axon

59
Q

Saltatory propagation

A

Speeds up propogation of action potentials

Axons myenlinated so only a few areas of cell membrane exposed

Ion exchange can only happen here

Rather than every part of axon being depolarised the local current causes impulse to jump from node to node

60
Q

Node of Ranvier

A

Exposed area of myelin sheath

Where ion transfer is possible on myelinated axons

61
Q

Schwann cells

A

Neuroglia cells

Produce myelin that wraps around axon covering it

62
Q

Benifits of nerves being myelinated

A

Causes salvatory propogation which is quicker than normal propogation

Uses less energy as fewer ions need to cross the membrane

63
Q

Post-synaptic cells of synapses could be…

A

Another nerve

Smooth muscle

Skeletal muscle

Glangular tissue

64
Q

Types of synapse

A

Chemical

Electrical

65
Q

Chemical synapse

A

Transfers from pre-synaptic cell to post-synpatic cell

Uses neurotransmitters

66
Q

Electrical synapse

A

Gap junctions - pores in the membrane between cells

Pores allow passage of ions

Passage of ions means passage of their individual charge

67
Q

Cholinergic synapses

A

Use aceytlcholine

Very common

68
Q

Synapses that are cholinergic

A

Skeletal muscle neuromuscular junctions

Many synapses in CNS

All nerve-nerve synapses in ANS

All neuro-effector synapses in the parasymathetic nervous system

69
Q

What synapse uses ACH

A

Cholinergic synapses

70
Q

At what voltage do Na+ voltage gated channels open

A

-60mV

71
Q

What causes more Na+ channels to open

A

Positive feedback

72
Q

What does the increased movement of Na+ cause

A

As it enters the cell it causes the cell membrane to depolarise

73
Q

At what voltage does the Na+ channels close and K+ channels open

A

+30mV

74
Q

What does the opening of K+ channels in the propogation of an action potential cause

A

K+ ions flood out of cell

Lowers membrane charge

75
Q

When the K+ ions leave the cell in propogating an action potential, with/against what gradient/s is it travelling

A

Electrical

  • With

Chemcical

  • Against
76
Q

Ca2+ role at synapse

A

Enters synaptic knob

Stimulates excosytosis of ACh from synaptic vesicles and into synpatic cleft

77
Q

Events at cholinergic synapse

A
  1. Ca2+ enters synaptic knob
  2. Causes excocytosis of ACh
  3. ACh diffuses across synaptic cleft
  4. ACh binds to receptors on post-synaptic membrane opening Na+ channels
  5. Post-synaptic membrane depolarised
  6. Acetylcholinesterase breaks down ACh
  7. Breakdown products recyled by pre-synaptic knob
78
Q

AChE

A

Acetylcholinesterase

Breaks down ACh into choline and acetate

79
Q

What recycles and produces new ACh at the synapse

In what part of synapse

A

Acetyl CoA

Synaptic knob

80
Q

Inhibitory neurones

A

Release neurotransmitters that hyperpolarise the nerve cell membrane

81
Q

Excitatory neurones

A

Release neurotransmitters that depolarise the nerve cell membrane

82
Q

Summation of presynaptic inputs

A

Single EPSPs may not be enough to depolarise membrane to threshold

EPSPs can combine to acheive threshold

83
Q

Propagation of action potentials

EPSP

A

Exitatory post-synaptic potential

Graded depolarisation caused by arival of neurotransmitter at post-synaptic membrane

Caused by opening of chemically gated Na+ channels

84
Q

Propagation of action potentials

IPSP

A

Inhibitory post-synaptic potential

Graded depolarisation caused by arival of neurotransmitter at post-synaptic membrane

Maybe caused by opening of chemical gated K+ channels

85
Q

Why would opening K+ channels decrease the likelihood of an action potential being propagated

A

K+ would leave the cell along it’s chemical gradient

Would cause the membrane to become hyperpolarised

Would take a larger than usual stimulus to reach threshold

86
Q

Types of summation

A

Temporal

Spatial

87
Q

Temporal summation

A

Multiple ESPSs in rapid succession from a single synapse

88
Q

Spatial summation

A

Simultaneous mulitple EPSPs from different synapses

89
Q

ANS effectors

A

Cardiac muscle

Smooth muscle

Glandular tissue

90
Q

ANS

A

Autonomic nervous system

91
Q

SNS

A

Somatic nervous system

92
Q

SNS effectors

A

Skeletal muscle

93
Q

SNS type of control

A

Voluntary

94
Q

ANS type of control

A

Involuntary

95
Q

SNS neural pathway

A

CNS direct to effector

96
Q

ANS neural pathway

A

CNS

Pre-ganglionic fibre to synapse with post-ganglionic cell in ganglion

Effector

97
Q

SNS action on effector

A

Always excitatory

98
Q

ANS action on effector

A

Can be excitatory or inhibitory

Depends on ANS division and effector type

99
Q

SNS neurotransmitters

A

ACh

100
Q

ANS neurotransmitters

A

ACh

Noradrenaline

101
Q

The different pathways of ANS

A

Sympathetic

Parasympathetic

102
Q

Sympathetic pathway

A

Fight or flight

Long pre-ganglionic fibre

Short post-ganglionic fibre

Can stimulate adrenal medulla to produce hormones to travel in blood stream to affect target organs

103
Q

Both pathways of ANS consist of

A

Pre-ganglionic cell and fibre

Post-ganglionic cell and fibre

104
Q

Hormones used in sympathetic pathway

A

Adrenaline

Noradrenaline

105
Q

Hormones used in parasympathetic pathway

A

Acetylcholine

106
Q

Areas that the sympathetic pathway can affect

A

Eyes

Skin

Arteries

Heart

Adrenal gland

Pancreas

Lungs

GI tract

Liver

Adipose tissue

107
Q

Areas that the parasympathetic pathway can affect

A

Eyes

Heart

Pancreas

Lungs

GI tract

Liver

108
Q

Two types of receptors in ANS

A

Adrenergic

Cholinergic

109
Q

Adrenergic receptors

A

α1

α2

β1

β2

110
Q

Found where and does what

α1 recpetors

A

Part of ANS

Found in most tissues

Stimulates metaoblism

Activates enzymes and releases intracellular Ca2+

111
Q

Found where and does what

α2 receptors

A

Sympathetic

  • Found in sympathetic neuromuscular or neuroglandular junctions
  • Inhibits effector cell
  • Reduces cAMP concentrations

Parasympathetic

  • Found in parasympathetic neuromuscular or neuroglandular junctions
  • Inhibits neurotransmitter release
  • Reduces cAMP concentrations
    *
112
Q

Found where and does what

β1 receptors

A

Found in heart, kindeys, liver and adipose tissue

Stimulates increased energy consumption by activating enzymes

113
Q

Found where and does what

β2 receptors

A

Found in smooth muscle in vessels of heart and skeletal muscle and small muscle layers in intestines, lungs and bronchi

Causes muscles tissue to relax

Activates enzymes

114
Q

Cholinergic receptors

A

Nicotinic

Muscarinic

115
Q

Found where and does what

Nicotinic receptors

A

Found in all autonomic synapses between pre-ganglionic and ganglionic neurones

Also found in neuromusclular junctions of SNS

Causes muscular contraction

Opens chemically gated Na+ channels

116
Q

Found where and does what

Muscarinic receptors

A

Found in all parasympathetic and cholinergic sympathetic neuromuscular or neuroglandular junctions

Activates enzymes that cause changes in membrane permeability to K+

117
Q

Sympathetic effects on eye

A

Pupil dilation

118
Q

Sympathetic effects on skin

A

Increased sweating

119
Q

Sympathetic effects on ateries

A

Dilation in:

  • Skin
  • Heart
  • Skeletal muscle
  • Lungs
  • Brain

Constriction of viscera and kidneys

120
Q

Sympathetic effects on the heart

A

Increases heart rate

Increases force of contraction

Increases blood pressure

121
Q

Sympathetic effects on the adrenal gland

A

Increased adrenaline and noradrenaline secretion

122
Q

Sympathetic effects on the pancreas

A

Decreased insulin secretion

123
Q

Sympathetic effects on the lungs

A

Increased airway diameter

124
Q

Sympathetic effects on the GI tract

A

Activity decreased

125
Q

Sympathetic effects on the liver

A

Glycogen breakdown

Glucose synthesis and release

126
Q

Sympathetic effects on the andipose tissue

A

Lipolysis

Fatty acid release

127
Q

Parasympathetic effects on the eye

A

Pupil constriction

128
Q

Parasympathetic effects on the skin

A

No effect

129
Q

Parasympathetic effects on the arteries

A

No effect

130
Q

Parasympathetic effects on the heart

A

Decreased heart rate

Decreased blood pressure

131
Q

Parasympathetic effects on the adrenal gland

A

No effect

132
Q

Parasympathetic effects on the pancreas

A

Increased insulin secretion

133
Q

Parasympathetic effects on the lungs

A

Decreased airway diameter

134
Q

Parasympathetic effects on the GI tract

A

Increased activity

135
Q

Parasympathetic effects on the liver

A

Glycogen synthesis

136
Q

Parasympathetic effects on the adipose tissue

A

No effect

137
Q

Process leading to contraction (neuromuscular junction)

A

Excitation contraction coupling

138
Q

What are each muscle fibres controlled by

A

A single motor end plate

139
Q

Location of CNS visceral motor neurones - sympathetic

A

Lateral grey horns of spinal segments

140
Q

Location of CNS visceral motor neurones - parasympathetic

A

Brain stem and spinal segments

141
Q

Location of PNS ganglia - sympathetic

A

Near vertebral column

142
Q

Lengths of ganglionic fibres in sympathetic pathway

A

Short pre-ganglionic

Long post-ganglionic

143
Q

Lengths of ganglionic fibres in parasympathetic pathway

A

Long pre-ganglionic

Short post-ganglionic

144
Q

5 steps of relfex arc

A
  1. Receptor senses a stimulus
  2. Sensory neuron transmits signal up the PNS to the CNS
  3. Integration center decodes the signal
  4. Motor neurone sends directions back to the site of the stimulus
  5. Effector cells respond by contracting or secreting

Human Structure and Function (14 decks)

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