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Human Structure and Function > Blood > Flashcards

Blood Flashcards

1
Q

Name of the system that blood is part of

A

Haemopoietic system

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2
Q

Temperature of blood at rest

A

About 38oC

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3
Q

Reasons why blood temperature may exceed 40oC

A

Prolonged exercise

Fever

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4
Q

Comparison of blood to water

A

5 times more viscous than water

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5
Q

pH of blood at rest

A

Slightly alkaline

Around 7.4 (7.35 - 7.45)

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6
Q

pH of blood during high intensity exercise

A

Lower than normal

Can be as low as 6.7

Acidic

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7
Q

What percentage of body mass is blood volume

A

Around 7%

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8
Q

Components to cardiovascular system and their general role

A

Heart

  • The pump

Blood vessels

  • The conductive system

Blood

  • The fluid medium
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9
Q

Functions of blood

A

Transport

Regulates body temperature

Buffers and balances acid base

Defends against pathogens and toxins

Restricts fluid loss at injury sites

Hydrolic functions….. (reproduction)

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10
Q

Why does blood pH change during exercise

A

Acetic acid built up

This lowers the pH of the blood making it more acidic

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11
Q

Blood distrubution rate at rest

A

5L/min

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12
Q

Blood distrubution rate during exercise

A

20-40L/min

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13
Q

Where is the majority of blood at any given time

A

In the veins

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14
Q

Venipuncture

A

Phlebotomy

When whole blood is taken a superficial vein

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15
Q

Reasons for using venipuncture to take blood

A

Superficial veins are easy to locate

They have thinner walls then arteries

Have lower blood pressure which allows quick wound sealing

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16
Q

Other areas used to take blood

A

Tip of the finger

Ear

Toe

Heel

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17
Q

Why are blood samples taken

A

Can check almost anything with a blood test

Blood goes everywhere and comes into contact with every part of the body

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18
Q

Why do veins have thinner walls than arteries

A

Deal with less pressure

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19
Q

Serum

A

Plasma without the clotting factors

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20
Q

Amount of plasma in blood

A

46-63%

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21
Q

Pecentage of formed elements in blood

A

37-54%

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22
Q

Plasma

A

Transport medium

Carries plasma proteins and other things like glucose

Mainly H2O

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23
Q

Percentage of plasma that is water

A

92%

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24
Q

Formed elements in blood

A

Red blood cells

White blood cells

Platelets

White band when spun in a centrafuge between plasma and red part is white blood cells and platelets

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25
Q

Haematocrit definition

A

Medical term

Describes the percentage of cellular elements in the total blood volume

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26
Q

Normal haematocrit values

A

Men - 40-52%

Women - 36-48%

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27
Q

Polycythaemia

A

Excess red blood cell production

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28
Q

Used of measuring haematocrit values

A

Can give information for the diagnosis of polycythaemia

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29
Q

Other name for red blood cells

A

Erthrocytes

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30
Q

Red blood cells

A

Highly specialised

Contain haemoglobin

Lack most organelles

Incapable of self repair

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31
Q

Life span of red blood cell

A

120 days

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32
Q

How far does a red blood cell travel in it’s lifetime

A

700 miles

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33
Q

Reason for lack of organelles in red blood cells

A

Mitochondria would steal oxygen that is being transported

Without other organelles their energy demands are low

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34
Q

Why can red blood cells not repair themselves or replicate themselves

A

Nuclei and other organelles required have been removed to make it more effecient

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35
Q

Where do red blood cells get their energy from

A

Anaerobic respiration

Uses glucose absorbed from surrounding plasma

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36
Q

Percentage of reb blood cells out of all cell in the body

A

Makes up 1/3 of all cells

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37
Q

Structure of red blood cells

A

Bi-concave disc

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38
Q

Benefits of red blood cell shape

A

Large surface area to volume ratio aids exchange

Can stack up and fall apart quickly - stacks more effeciently travel through blood vessels just larger than RBCs

Can bend and flex to squeeze trough capilaries narrower then the RBCs normal size

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39
Q

Haemoglobin

A

Intracellular protein in red blood cells

Each contains four haeme pigment complexes

Has a complex quaternary shape

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40
Q

How many molecules of oxygen does one red blood cell carry

A

About 1 billion

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41
Q

Haeme

A

Pigment complex on haemoglobin

Interacts with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin

Iron-oxygen interaction is very weak so can be seperated easily without damage

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42
Q

Ways oxygen is transported in blood (%)

A

Dissolved in blood (about 1.5%)

Attached to haemoglobin (about 98.5%)

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43
Q

Ways carbon dioxide is transported in blood (%)

A

Dissolved in blood (~7%)

As bicarbonate ions by reaction with water (~70%)

Attached to haemoglobin (~23%)

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44
Q

What is formed when CO2 attaches to haemoglobin

A

Carbaminohaemoglobin

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45
Q

Carboxyhaemoglobin

A

Formed when carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin

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46
Q

What percentage of carboxyhaemoglobin is required to be fatal

Other effects

A

50%

Seizures and comas

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47
Q

Anemia

A

When blood doesn’t have enough haemoglobin

Often treated by taking in more iron to make up for lack of haemoglobin

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48
Q

Fetal haemoglobin

A

Form of haemoglobin embryos/fetuses have

Binds more readily to oxygen than normal haemoglobin

Means the fetus can steal oxygen from the mother’s blood at the placenta

49
Q

Sickle cell anemia

A

Genetic disease

Red blood cells become sickle shaped

Can’t carry as much oxygen

RBCs can’t bend and fit through narrow spaces anymore

RBCs stick in capillaries and cause blocks

50
Q

Process where RBCs are produced

A

Erythropoiesis

51
Q

Erythropoiesis

A

Occurs only in red bone marrow

Produces red blood cells

52
Q

Stages of erythropoiesis

A
  1. Haemocytoblasts divide to produce myeloid stem cells
  2. Myeloid stem cells differentiate into proerythroblast
  3. Proerythroblasts proceed through erythroblast stages
  4. Normoblast formed
  5. Normoblast sheds necleus and becomes a reticulocyte
  6. Reticuloctyre enters blood stream
  7. After 24 hours in blood stream reticulocyte complete maturation and becomes a RBC
53
Q

Erythropoietin

A

EPO

Glycoprotein

Appears in the plasma when peripheral tissue like the kidneys lack oxygen

54
Q

Hypoxia

A

State of low tissue oxygen levels

55
Q

When erythropoietin is released

A

During anaemia

Blood flow to kidneys declines

Oxygen content in the lungs declines

Respiratory surfaces of the lungs are damaged

56
Q

Major effects of erythropoietin

A

Stimulates increased cell division rates in erythroblasts and in stem cells that produce erythroblasts

Speeds up maturation of RBCs by accelerating haemaglobin synthesis

57
Q

What synthesises haemoglobin

A

Erythroblasts during erythropoiesis

58
Q

Image

Red blood cell turnover

A
59
Q

Normal stages of red blood cell recycling

A
  1. At the end of their life they are engulfed by phagocytes
  2. Globular proteins broken down into component amino acids which are either released or metabolised
  3. Heme units stripped of iron and converted to biliverdin
  4. Biliverdin converted to bilirubin and released into blood stream
  5. Bilirubin binds to album and taken to liver to be excreted in bile
  6. In large intestine bilirubin broken down to urobilinogens and stercobilinogens
  7. Urobilinogens excreted in urine
  8. Stercobilinogens excreted in feces
60
Q

Haemolysis

A

When red blood cells reputure before they can be broken down

Haemoglobin released into blood and breaks down instead of being recycled

61
Q

Percentage of RBCs that haemolys each day

A

About 10%

62
Q

Haemoglobinuria

A

When abnomarmally large numbers of RBCs haemolyse

Urine turns red or brown

63
Q

Haematuria

A

Presence of intact red blood cells in urine

Happens when kidneys or vessels along the urinary tract are damaged

64
Q

Biliverdin

A

What haeme units are converted to after their iron has been taken away

Organic compound with a green colour

65
Q

Bilirubin

A

What biliverdin is converted into

Orange-yellow pigment

Binds to album and transported to liver

66
Q

What is bilirubin broken down into

A

2 pigments

  • Urobilinogens
  • Stercobilinogens
67
Q

Which product of bilirubin is excreted mainly in urine

A

Urobilininogens

68
Q

When coming into contact with _____ the products of bilirubin break down into what

A

When they come into contact with oxygen:

Urobilinogens → Urobilins

Stercobilinogens → Stercobilins

69
Q

What transports Fe2+ back to the bone marrow for RBC production

A

Transferrin in blood stream

70
Q

Antigen

A

A substance that can trigger a protective defence response

71
Q

What determines a persons blood type

A

The presence/absence of particular antigens on the surface of their RBCs

72
Q

Antigens on human red blood cells

A

Genetically determined

Are glycoproteins or glycolypids

Almost 50 different antigens

73
Q

3 important sufarce antigens on RBCs

A

A

B

Rh

74
Q

Blood type A

  • Surface antigen
  • Antibodies
  • Types that can recieve blood from
A

Has only type A antigens

Anti-B antigens

Can recieve from A and O

75
Q

Blood type B

  • Surface antigen
  • Antibodies
  • Types that can recieve blood from
A

Has only type B antigens

Anti-A antigens

Can recieve from B and O

76
Q

Blood type AB

  • Surface antigen
  • Antibodies
  • Types that can recieve blood from
A

Both A and B antigens

Has nither anti-A or anti-B

Can recieve from A, B, AB or O

77
Q

Blood type O

  • Surface antigen
  • Antibodies
  • Types that can recieve blood from
A

No surface antigens

Both anti-A and anti-B antigens

Can only recieve from O

78
Q

Rh antigen

A

As well as A and B antigens

2 types

  • Rh+
  • Rh-
79
Q

Other name for surface antigens on RBCs

A

Agglutinogens

80
Q

Agglutination

A

When blood with antigens that don’t match your own is given to you

Antibodies attacks the “foreign” red blood cells

Causes them to clump together and finally by hemolysed

81
Q

Cross-match testing

A

Used to test if a donors blood is compatible with the recipitant

Anti-A, anti-B and anti-D antibodies are added to seperate samples of blood

Depending on which causes agglutination tells you which type it is

82
Q

Universal donnor

A

Blood type O

Can be given to anyone

83
Q

What’s the best type of blood to give to someone who you don’t know what their blood type is and why

A

O-

O- has no surface antigens so wont cause an immune respone

84
Q

Leukocytes

A

White blood cells

85
Q

Do white blood cells have a nuclues

What does this let them do

A

Yes

Control cell function and replication

86
Q

Functions of white blood cells

A

Defend against pathogens

Remove toxins and waste

Attacks abnormal cells

87
Q

White blood cell lifespan

A

From a few hours to decades

88
Q

Where are white blood cells produced

A

In the bone marrow

89
Q

5 classes of leukocytes percentages

A

Neutrophils (50-70%)

Lymphocytes (20-30%

Monocytes (2-8%)

Eosinophils (2-4%)

Basophils (<1%)

90
Q

5 classes of leukocytes

A

Neutrophils

Lymphocytes

Monocytes

Eosinophils

Basophils

91
Q

Way to remember 5 classes of leukocytes

A

Never let monkeys eat bananas

92
Q

Types of lymphoctyes

A

Active B-cells

T-cells

Natural killer cells

93
Q

Where are white blood cells

A

Most time in connective tissue or in the organs of the lymphatic system

Only circulate for a brief period when injury/infection happens

94
Q

How do white blood cells move

A

All types move by amoeboid movement

Cell pulls itself forward by rearranging bonds between actin filaments in the cytoskeleton

Requires ATP and calcium ions

95
Q

Where can white blood cells go

A

Can go in blood stream

Hides out in connective tissue

Can also move through tissue by amoebic movement

96
Q

How are white blood cells guided to pathogens?

A

Positive chemotaxis

97
Q

Which white blood cells can perform phagocytosis

A

Neutrophils

Eosinophils

Monocytes

98
Q

What white blood cells make up the bodies non-specific defences

A

Neutrophils

Eosinophils

Monocytes

Basophils

99
Q

Which white blood cells make up the bodies specfic defences

A

Lymphocytes

100
Q

T cells

A

Type of lymphocytes

Cell mediated immunity

Travel to target

From the thymus gland

Target of HIV for replication

101
Q

B cells

A

Type of lymphocyte

Antibody-mediated immunity

Secretes antibodies

102
Q

Natural killer cells

A

Type of lymphocytes

Performs immune surveilance

Lysises tumours, parasites or virally infected cells

103
Q

Leukopenia

A

Abnormally low white blood cell count

104
Q

Leukocytosis

A

Abnormally high white blood cell count

Normally due to an infection

105
Q

Leukemia

A

Extremely high white blood cell count

106
Q

Blood platelets

A

Produced in the bone marrow

No nucleus

Life of 9-12 days

Involved in blood clotting

1/3 in spleen as a potential reserve

107
Q

Platelet role following an injury to a vascular wall

A

Release enzymes needed for clotting

Provide temporary patches in damaged vascular walls (platelet plug)

Shrink the break in the vessel wall by activating their actin and myosin filaments

108
Q

Haemostasis

A

Clotting

4 stages

109
Q

Stages of haemostasis

A

Vascular

Platelet

Coagulation

Clot retraction

110
Q

Vascular phase of haemostasis

A
  1. Blood vessel cut
  2. Smooth muscle fibres contract (spasm) to slow blood loss
  3. Basal lasminas exposed to blood
  4. This triggers endothelial cells to release chemicals and hormones that help the repair process
  5. Endothelial cells become sticky which may cause the sides of the cuts to stick together in small blood vessels
111
Q

Platelet phase of haemostasis

A
  1. Platelet plug forms within 15 seconds of injury by platelet aggregation
  2. Platelets stick to the sticky endothelial surface release a variety of chemicals that promote aggregation, vascular spasm, clotting and vessel repair
  3. Positive feeback loop produces a platelet plug that is reinforced as clotting occurs
112
Q

Coagulation phase of haemostasis

A

Occurs 30 seconds after injury

Fibrin is manufactured

Fibrin strands form a framework that can trap red blood cells and platelets

113
Q

How is fibrin produced in haemostasis

A

Specific clotting factors required from either

  • Extrinsic pathway
  • Intrinsic pathway

Activation of clotting factors activates Factor X

Factor X turns on a cascade of reactions that finally produces insoluable fibrin strands

114
Q

Haemostasis

Extrinsic pathway

A

Quick pathway

Clotting factors come from endothlial cells in the damaged vessel wall

115
Q

Haemostasis

Intrinsic pathway

A

Sustained pathway

Clotting factors come from circulating platelets in the blood

116
Q

Clot retraction phase of haemostasis

A

Clot fully forms

Platelet plug contracts pulling torn edges of the blood vessel together

Prostacyclin limit the growth of the plug

Plasmin digests fibrin strands through fibrinolysis

117
Q

Plasmin

A

Enzyme

Digests fibrin through fibrinolysis

Used in the clot retraction phase of haemostasis

118
Q

Fibrinolysis

A

Process where fibrin is broken down

Uses the enzyme plasmin

Happens in the clot retraction phase of haemostasis

Human Structure and Function (14 decks)

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