Personality & Learning Flashcards
What does the behaviorist/learning theory of language say?
Says that children acquire language through operant conditioning/reinforcement. Parents reinforce sounds that babies learn to distinguish from other sounds that parents don’t use. Also, imitation & practice.
What does the nativist theory of language say?
Says that children are born with the innate capability to learn and acquire language. They have a thing called a language acquisition device and a critical period for language development. There is also a universal grammar that is shared among different languages and part of our genetic makeup.
Interactionist/social cognitive theory of language
Social cognitive approach to language said that children learn language by observing others and interacting with them as well having a desire to interact which comes from the biological aspect of human needs to communicate. Focuses on both social & biological factors.
When is the critical period of language development?
Language acquisition is critical during the first 12 years of life.
What does the Universalist theory of language propose?
It proposes that cognition/thinking comes first, which determines/controls a child’s language.
What does the linguistic relativity hypothesis say?
Proposed by Benjamin Wharf, it says that language influences cognition/thought.
What does linguistic determinism say about language and cognition?
It says that language comes first which completely controls cognition. It is more severe than lithe linguistic relativity hypothesis.
What are the 4 stages of Bandura’s social cognitive learning model?
- Attention/observation
- Retention
- Imitation
- Motivation - “reflection and perceived relative success”
What does Bandura’s social cognitive theory of learning say?
He says that children learn through watching people and their environment and modeling what they say/do, however, there are specific steps that must be followed for learning to occur which are outlined in 4 stages.
Instinctive drift
When animals revert to instinctive behavior after learning a new behavior that is similar, and reminds them of that instinct
Latent learning
Learning that doesn’t come with a reward
Problem solving
A type of learning that is used often by children which starts out by trial and error, but develops into analysis & appraisal of a situation
What is a discriminative stimulus?
A stimulus that triggers a specific response/behavior, compared to other stimuli that wouldn’t trigger that behavior
What is negative punishment?
Removing a stimulus in order to reduce the frequency of a behavior
What is positive punishment/aversive conditioning?
Adding a stimulus in order to reduce the frequency of a behavior
(Example: Giving a person a fine for parking their car in the fire lane)
What is “shaping”?
Reinforcing increasingly specific behaviors that become closer to the ultimate desired response
What is avoidance learning?
Performing the desired behavior in anticipation of the stimulus to avoid it
What is reinforcement?
Increasing the frequency of a behavior either by adding or taking away a stimulus
Positive reinforcement
Adding a stimulus in order to reinforce the frequency of a behavior
What is associative learning? What are the two types?
Learning that involves associating 2 stimuli together or a behavior and a response.
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
What is classical conditioning?
A type of learning that takes advantage of biological innate responses to create associations between 2 stimuli (creating an association between a neutral stimulus & a unconditioned stimulus).
What is a neutral stimulus?
It is a stimulus which doesn’t elicit any biological instinctual response
—> can become a conditioned stimulus
What is escape learning?
To remove or take away an unwanted stimulus, the individual performs the desired behavior
Habituation
Being repeatedly exposed to a stimulus the individual stops paying attention to/responding to the stimulus
Dishabituation
Recovery of a response to a stimulus due to presentation of a 2nd stimulus, which causes the individual to pay attention to the original stimulus
Nonassociative learning
Learning that involves a single stimulus. The two types are habituation and dishabituation.
Sensitization
Repeated exposure of a stimulus causes increased response to that stimulus. (Ex: Instead of being accustomed to a flickering light above you, you become annoyed by it)
Desensitization
Repeated exposure to a stimulus first causes an increased response, but this leads to a decreased response after
Generalization
when you generalize a specific response/behavior to other stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. It is a broadening effect where a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can produce the same condition response.
Stimulus discrimination
This is when a stimulus that is similar to the condition stimulus doesn’t produce the same condition response. In other words, the individual is able to distinguish between the two stimuli.
Operant conditioning
A type of associative learning that involves consequences in order to reduce or enhance the frequency of the behavior.
Negative reinforcement
removing a stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. There are two types: escape Learning and avoidance learning
Stimulus
Anything to which an individual can respond to
Unconditioned stimulus
The stimulus that produces a reflexive response
Unconditioned response
The reflexive response to an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus
A once neutral stimulus that was paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response through association
What is acquisition?
This is the process of using a reflexive unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus
Extinction
When a conditioned stimulus no longer produces a conditioned response. This can happen if the condition stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
What are defense mechanisms?
They are unconscious strategies used by the ego when it is overwhelmed or weaker than the id. Used to alleviate anxiety or other suffering.
What is instinctive drift?
This is the phenomenon of an animal’s innate behavior overshadowing/taking over a learned behavior, even if that learned behavior is reinforced with a reward
What is taste aversion? Give a typical example.
It is a type of associative learning where animals or humans who become ill after one exposure to a noxious stimulus will learn & associate that stimulus with harm in the future thus avoiding it
What are the 3 ways train someone in performing a new behavior?
- Increasing their motivational state (Such as depriving them of the desirable stimulus)
- Shaping - rewarding behaviors that increasingly approximate & strive towards the desirable behavior
- Continuous reinforcement - rewarding the desirable behavior every time it occurs
Why is continuous reinforcement the best method for the beginning phase of acquisition?
It unambiguously informs the subject which behavior is correct and which is wrong. Therefore, wrong behaviors become more infrequent.
What kind of learning is used to maintain behaviors that have already been learned?
Partial reinforcement schedules. This type of operant conditioning allows for reinforcement after a certain number of behaviors or a certain amount of time.
How is sensory adaptation different from habituation?
Sensory adaptation involves the actual sensory receptors adapting to a stimulus so they don’t respond as frequently, however habituation involves a type of learning where a person no longer pays attention to/responds to a stimulus (no physiological aspect).
Variable ratio schedule
Rewarding a behavior for every variable amount of times that behavior is performed (sometimes after 3 times it’s performed, next time after 5 performances, it depends)
Which type of partial reinforcement is the most resistant to extinction and has the fastest response rate in performing the behavior?
Variable ratio schedule
Variable-Interval schedule
Reinforcement of a behavior after different time intervals (every 60 secs, every 10 secs, ever 30 secs)
Fixed interval schedule
Reinforcing a behavior after a certain time interval every single time (every 60 secs)
Fixed-ratio schedule
Reinforcing a behavior after a certain number of performances (for every 3 performances)
What are biological constraints of learning? Give some examples.
They are biological factors which predispose humans to learn certain associations better than others.
Two examples are taste aversion and instinctive drift.
What is a personality?
It is the set of feelings, behaviors, traits, and thoughts that are characteristic of an individual across time and location
What are the psychoanalytical theory of personality?
Theories of personality that emphasize unconscious internal states which motivate people’s actions and personality. The two main psychoanalysts are: Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung
Freud structural model of personality contained which three components?
Id, ego, superego
Id
Primal inborn urges and desires
Functions according to the pleasure principle, DOESN’T resolve any conflict
Ego
Operates according to objective reality by postponing pleasure until it can actually be attained, functions according to reality principle
-Moderates conflicts & demands of the id & superego to prevent anxiety
Superego
Moral compass, judges our actions, and contains a system of right and wrong. This component of personality develops around four years old.
What are the two subsystems of the superego?
- Conscience - collection of improper actions
- Ego ideal - collection of proper actions
What did Freudsay about instincts?
He said our behavior is influenced by two types of instincts. Eros is the life instinct which governs our need for survival. while Thanatos is the death instinct, which is our unconscious wish for death.
Libido
What Freud termed was the ultimate thing that drives human behavior since birth, “sex drive” which fuels the mechanisms of our mind
What is fixation?
According to Freud, this is when a child is stuck during one of the stages of psychosexual development. In response, they perform a pattern of behavior that is associated with the fixated stage which persist into adulthood as a mental disorder.
Oral stage of psychosexual development
(0-1 year) First stage characterized by putting everything to the mouth. Fixation at this stage later in adulthood causes dependency.
What did Freud’s theory of psychosexual development say?
It’s stated that human psychology is driven by a sex drive that we aim to reduce due to society’s norms. This sex drive is reduced through different methods depending on the developmental stage the child is in.
Anal stage of psychosexual development
(1-3 years); libido is reduced through retention and waste, “potty training”. Fixation leads to excessive orderliness or sloppiness.
Genital stage of psychosexual development
Last stage, focused on forming heterosexual relationships if all other stages have been passed & resolved
Latency stage of psychosexual development
(5 years until puberty), libido is largely sublimated here, focus on school and extracurriculars
Phallic/oedipal stage of psychosexual development
(3-5 years), male child attempts to resolve Oedipal conflict (envy of intimate relationship with mother) by sublimating his libidinal energy and creating a good relationship w/ his father
Repression
Unconsciously removing an idea or thought from consciousness often due to traumatic experience
Supression
Consciously removing an idea/feelings/thoughts from consciousness often due to some purpose or reason
Regression
Going back to an earlier stage of development of childhood, especially during a stressful situation
Reaction formation
Reacting opposite of the way you actually feel; minimizing uncomfortable thoughts by overemphasizing the opposite (Ex: a man who feels insecure on the side acts very aggressive)
Rationalization
Justification of attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors
Projection
When you project your insecurities onto someone else (For example, when you are cheating, but you accuse your wife of cheating and go through her phone after she goes out with her girls), often done to avoid guilt
Displacement
When you take out your negative feelings on someone else
Sublimation
Turning an inappropriate feeling/thought into a socially acceptable outcome (For example, a boss who is attracted to an employee becomes that employee’s mentor
Carl Jung’s psychoanalytic theory key points
-Conscious and unconscious component
-Unconscious is divided into personal unconscious and collective unconscious
-Archetypes
-A person’s self is the promoter of balance & harmony
Jung’s personal unconscious
The personal unconscious and repressed thoughts/desires of an individual that is unique to them
Jung’s collective unconscious
The unconscious that is shared among people around the world, composed of archetypes formed by previous experiences of ancestors
what is the persona archetype?
The mask that we put on and share with the world/public
What is the shadow archetype?
The dark side of an individual’s personality and unconscious mind. Unpleasant and negatively reprehensible thoughts
What are the Anima and Animus archetypes?
Anima - femininity archetype
Animus - masculinity archetype
Jung’s theory on dreams
He believed that dreams were direct expressions of the mind itself and that dreams could be used to provide images of the future for the individual.
Horney’s psychoanalytic theory
She believed that personality development is the result of interpersonal relationships that children have mainly with their caregivers. In adequate caregiving can cause helplessness, which is termed, basic anxiety in children.
Carl Roger’s Humanistic theory of personality
-Argued that an individual’s free will determines their behavior, their own choices
- Emphasized giving patient space and full support in coping and solving their own problems
-Developed client centered therapies, promoting a positive environment
Alder’s psychoanalytic theory of personality
-Main actor in driving personality is the human need to strive for superiority
-said that personal growth occurs if you have genuineness and acceptance of yourself
-Creative self is an important aspect of your personality
Explain the social cognitive theory of personality and who pioneered it.
Albert Bandura said that personality develops based on a series of factors interacting such as social environment and cognition of the individual themself.
-Dependent on how we interact with our environment
Behaviorist theory of personality
Personality could be controlled by operant conditioning, that is reinforcement of behaviors
Maslow’s humanistic theory
-Said people were inherently good
-People had to meet a hierarchy of needs in order from bottom to top
-The highest stage was self-actualization where the individual meets their highest potential
What is word association testing?
It is a type of test used by Carl Jung to assess how the unconscious mind influences the conscious. Patients have to respond to a single word with the first word that comes to their mind when they hear that word.
Type theory of personality
Personalities were organized based on types, different theorists such as:
-Will Sheldon devised personality types based on body types
-Early Greeks devised personality types based on body fluids
-Type A and Type B personalities
George Kelley’s humanistic theory of personality
Believed people were scientists who devise and tested predictions about the behavior of other people in their lives and the environment around them
-People form constructs in their mind to somehow understand the reality of the world, these are constantly changing
Trait theory of personality key points
-Describes individuals based on identifiable patterns of behavior
-describe the set of traits individuals possess instead of explaining how they formed those traits
Type A personality
-People with more competitive and compulsive behavior
Type B personality
-People with Laid back and relaxed behavior
Big Five Trait Theory
Describes personality based on 5 categories: OCEAN
-Theorized that all individuals have these 5 traits, but vary on the spectrum of them
O un OCEAN
Openness; either being independent or conforming?
Other traits: curiosity, imagination, unconventional attitudes
(Do you have a willingness to try new things?)
C in OCEAN
Conscientiousness; Are you careful or careless? Disciplined or impulsive? Organized? Punctual?
(Trait describes the level of impulse control and spontaneity a person has)
E in OCEAN
Extraversion; Are you talkative or quiet?
(A measure of tolerance for social interaction)
A in OCEAN
Agreeableness; Are you kind or cold? Appreciative or unfriendly? Empathetic or antagonistic (hostile)?
(This measures the degree to which a person is concerned about keeping peace with others)
N in OCEAN
Neuroticism; Are you calm or anxious?
(Degree of emotional stability/arousal a person has in response to stressful situations
Gordon Allport’s trait theory
-He believed that individuals have different traits unlike the big 5 trait theory
-Individuals have 100s of traits that can be organized into these three categories:
Cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits
Cardinal traits
-Rare, few people posses a cardinal trait
-These are traits around which people organize their lives (most dominant traits) which influence central and secondary traits
Central traits
- Present in all types of people
-Major characteristics of people’s personality that are easy to infer
Secondary traits
-Variable traits that differ depending on the current circumstances
How did Erik Erickson approach personality development in children?
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY - He said that personality development is driven by the successful resolution of social & emotional conflicts
-If the outcome is negative at a certain stage, the person fails to develop that skill/value, but can still move on to further stages
Trust vs. mistrust stage
Age - newborn
Conflict of whether to trust or not trust caregiver
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Age 1-3
Children explore surrounding and develop feeling of ability to exert control over the world, practice self-restraint
Initiative vs. guilt
Age 3-6
Child learns basic cause & effect principles, has ability to initiate activities & enjoy accomplishment
Industry vs. inferiority
Age 6-12
Preadolescents become aware of themselves, develop self-esteem
Identity vs. role confusion
Age 12-20
Teens explore their independence, to determine their purpose in society and identity
What is the stage of erickson’s development that has to do with focusing on creating long-lasting relationships and love?
Intimacy vs. isolation (20-40 years)
Generativity vs. stagnation
Age 40-65
Focus on contributing to society as much as possible
Integrity vs despair
Age 65+
Reflection on one’s life
List of all the values of Erickson’s developmental stages in order
Hope
Will
Purpose
Competency
Fidelity
Love
Care
Wisdom
Neumonic to remember stages and values of Erickson’s development
Values: He Will Probably Come fast, Literally Can’t Wait
Kholberg’s approach to personality development
Preconventional
Conventional
Postconventional
According to Freud, the ego is (unconscious/conscious/both), while Jung said the ego was (unconscious/conscious/both).
Freud - both
Jung - conscious
