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Malika Psychology MCAT > Neuropsychology > Flashcards

Neuropsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Postganglionic neuron

A

Second neuron in a reflex pathway that lies outside the CNS and goes on to synapse on the target cell. It travels from the ganglion specifically to the target smooth muscle or gland being innervated.

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2
Q

Microglia

A

It is the primary immune cell of the CNS which acts as a macrophage by foving pathogens, damage, cells, and other wastes

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3
Q

Astrocytes

A

CNS glial cells that perform various functions including structural support, maintaining chemical, homeostasis, regulating fluid and ion balance, regulating pH, providing blood to neurons by maintaining connections, and regulating neurotransmitter concentrations.

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4
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

CNS glial cells that secrete myelin to form myelin sheath around axons to reduce ion leakage, decrease capacitance and increase action potential propagation speed.
Incapable of neurogenesis, so once they are damaged they can’t be repaired.

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5
Q

Ependymal cells

A

They are considered both “epithelial and glial cells” that line the ventricle compartments of the CNS and secrete CSF.

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6
Q

What is the left dominant hemisphere responsible for?

A

It is responsible for language, analytical reasoning, math, science, and logic skills.

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7
Q

What is the right non-dominant hemisphere responsible for?

A

It is responsible for the emotional tone of language and speech, creativity, music, visualization, and spatial processing.

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8
Q

Reticular formation

A

An extensive network of neurons in the brain that are responsible for cortical arousal/alertness.

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9
Q

What structures are included in the prosencephalon?

A

Cerebral cortex, thalamus, limbic system, and hypothalamus

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10
Q

What are the structures and function of the mesencephalon?

A

(Midbrain) substantia nigra, tegmentum, and tectum
Functions include voluntary motor movement of head & body, regulating sleep/wake cycle, eye-movement, auditory and visual processing.

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11
Q

What is the tonic neck reflex?

A

It is when the infants mother’s voice causes an infant to turn her head to the left, and simultaneously the left arm extends, while the right arm flexes at the elbow.

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12
Q

What is the palmar grasp reflex?

A

It is when you put something in an infant’s hand and it automatically grasps it.

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13
Q

What is the walking reflex?

A

Around seven months and on when an infants legs are placed on the ground, the baby starts to take steps forward in a walking motion.

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14
Q

What is the rooting reflex?

A

It is when you stroke a babies cheek, it turns its mouth towards your hand and opens its mouth.

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15
Q

What are the three main structures of the brain during development of the embryo?

A

Forebrain (Prosencephalon), Midbrain (mesencephalon), and hindbrain (rhombencephalon)

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16
Q

What is the structure and function of the rhombencephalon?

A

It is composed of the pons, medulla, and cerebellum.
Functions include coordinating movement and balance, wakefulness, sleep, respiratory rate.

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17
Q

What is a preganglionic neuron?

A

It is an efferent neuron that either originates in the spinal cord or the brain and travels to the ganglion. The preganglionic neuron response can be modulated since this neuron lies within the CNS.

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18
Q

What is the function of the basal ganglia?

A

It is a region of nuclei deep in the brain made of grey matter that controls the selection & execution of voluntary motor movements and production of dopamine.

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19
Q

What is the difference between sulci and gyri?

A

Sulci are the grooves (lines of the brain)
Gyri are the actual bumps which protrude out of the brain.

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20
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

It is a band of white matter that connects the two hemispheres together allowing them to communicate.

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21
Q

What is the function of the medulla?

A

Located at the most inferior part of the brainstem, the medulla is responsible for involuntary functions such as breathing, swallowing, heart rate, blood pressure, etc.

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22
Q

What is the internal capsule brain region?

A

It is a V shaped band of white matter in the brain that contains many axon tracts which connect different parts of the cerebrum.

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23
Q

Function of cerebellum

A

-Learning of motor tasks such as swimming, driving, speaking, etc
-Integration of sensory info to maintain balance/posture
-Coordinate complex movements
-Some proprioception

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24
Q

Functions of the frontal & parietal lobe

A

Frontal - reasoning, problem solving (working memory), executive decision making, initiation of voluntary motor movements
Parietal - spatial information & cognitive mapping of things in our environment spatially, integration of sensory information

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25
Q

What is the function of an agonist vs antagonist.

A

Agonist binds directly to the receptor and mimics the action of the neurotransmitter.
Antagonist binds directly to the receptor and blocks further action.

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26
Q

What does the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia say?

A

It says that the main symptoms of schizophrenia which are delusions and hallucinations arise from either too much dopamine in the brain, or from an insensitivity to dopamine.

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27
Q

What are the 7 main Neurotransmitters?

A

Acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, GABA, glutamate, endorphins

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28
Q

What is the function of GABA?

A

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane. Functions in stabilizing neural activity in the brain and decreasing excitatory response.

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29
Q

Glutamate

A

Excitatory neurotransmitter involved in cortical arousal/consciousness. The reticular formation releases glutamate throughout the cerebral cortex.

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30
Q

Acetylcholine

A

Inhibitory & excitatory neurotransmitter involved in activation of the parasympathetic nervous system as well as being released at the neuromuscular junction to stimulate muscle contraction. It is released in the basalis and septal nuclei in the frontal cortex.

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31
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Excitatory neurotransmitter involved in activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Increases heart rate, blood pressure, alertness, wakefulness.
Increased levels are often associated with anxiety & panic attacks.

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32
Q

Dopamine

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in a drug reward pathway (feelings of pleasure & reward) and regulation of voluntary muscle movements.
High levels of dopamine are associated with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
Low levels are associated with Parkinson’s disease and depression.

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33
Q

Endorphins

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitter that acts as an analgesic and gives a euphoric sensation when released.

34
Q

What is the function of serotonin?

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps regulate mood (anxiety/depression), sleep patterns, sexual desire, appetite, and blood clotting.

35
Q

What are the glial cells of the PNS?

A

Schwann cells and satellite cells

36
Q

What are the glial cells of the CNS?

A

Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia

37
Q

What is the dorsal horn?

A

Located on the inner part of the spinal cord, has cell bodies of sensory neurons that travel to the CNS

38
Q

What is the ventral horn?

A

Located on the inside of the spinal cord, it has cell bodies of motor neurons that travel via the ventral root to innervate muscle cells.

39
Q

What are the monoamine neurotransmitters?

A

dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine

40
Q

Low levels of monamines can lead to disorders such as ……

A

Depression and Parkinson’s disease

41
Q

High levels of monamines can lead to disorders such as ….

A

Anxiety/panic attacks, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia

42
Q

Afferent neuron

A

Sensory neuron, travels towards CNS

43
Q

Efferent neuron

A

Motor neuron, travels away from the CNS to the skeletal muscle fibers

44
Q

What is a reflex arc?

A

An immediate reaction response involving no input/output from the CNS

45
Q

What are the 2 types of reflex arcs

A

Monosynaptic - involves a sensory neuron and a motor neuron
Disynaptic - involves a sensory neuron, interneuron, and motor neuron

46
Q

Signs of damage to the LMNs

A

-Skeletal muscle atrophy
-Fasciculations (involuntary twitches)
-Decreased muscle tone (hypotonia)
-Decreased muscle reflexes

47
Q

Which somatic sensory neurons have large diameter axons?

A

Proprioception, vibration, sensitive touch —> conduct fast AP

48
Q

Which somatic sensory neurons have small diameter axons?

A

Temperature, pain, non-discriminate touch

49
Q

What are tracts?

A

They are bundles of axons that travel through the white matter in the brain

50
Q

What kind of cells does the autonomic nervous system control?

A

It controls smooth muscle cells, cardiac cells, gland cells, and enteric neurons in the digestive organs.

51
Q

sympathetic innervation

A

Sympathetic innervation is when a short preganglionic neurons extends from the spinal cord and synopsis on a nearby ganglion. The long postganglionic neuron then extends to innervate the target muscle further away.

52
Q

Parasympathetic innervation

A

The long preganglionic neuronnstarts either in the brainstem, or the spinal cord and extends to a ganglion far away. The short postganglionic neuron goes onto innervate the target muscle nearby.

53
Q

Upper motor neurons

A

Neurons in the cerebral cortex that send axons to synapse on lower motor neurons. One upper motor neuron can control many lower motor neurons.

54
Q

What is the corticospinal tract?

A

It is a track made up of upper motor neurons in the brain that travel all the way down to the brainstem and cross to the opposite side to control limb and trunk movement contralaterally.

55
Q

What is the cortical bulbar tract?

A

A tract made up of upper motor neurons that travel to the brainstem to control the craniofacial nerves. Some of them cross to the opposite side of the brainstem, but some of them stay on the same side.

56
Q

Signs of damage to UMNs

A

Hyperreflexia - increase muscle reflex
Hypertonia - increase muscle tone
Clonis - rhythmic contraction of antagonist muscles
Extensor plantar response - when you scrape the bottom of the foot downward, the toes respond by flexing back (normally they would flex forward)

57
Q

What are Schwann cells?

A

They are glial cells of the PNS which form myelin sheath around axons.

58
Q

What are satellite cells?

A

They are glial cells in the PNS that provide structural support and supply nutrients to the cell bodies in the autonomic nervous system.

59
Q

What is the blood brain barrier?

A

Composed of endothelial cells with tight junctions, they control the transport of solutes in and out of brain tissue, and are responsible for protecting the brain from harmful waste products, filter out toxins back to the bloodstream.

60
Q

What is delirium tremens?

A

It is the state that some people are in after alcohol withdrawal. Characterized by shaking, sweating, elevated heart rate, shivering.

61
Q

What are neural crest cells?

A

They are multi potential transient cells that migrate during the development of the embryo and form many different types of cells in the body including neurons, glia, cartilage, melanocytes, etc.

62
Q

What are the routes of molecular transport through the blood brain barrier?

A

Paracellular route – transport of small hydrophilic molecules through the tight junctions
Transcellular route – transport of small lipophilic molecules through the endothelial cells

63
Q

Which areas of the brain develop the most during adolescence?

A

Prefrontal cortex (higher order cognition), limbic system specifically the amygdala and hypothalamus (emotional processing and hormone regulation), corpus callosum (involved in language learning)

64
Q

What is synaptic pruning?

A

A natural process that occurs during childhood and adolescence, it involves the brain getting rid of weak less frequently used synapses and strengthening strong frequently used synapses.

65
Q

What is the physiological reason behind adolescents being able to process information quicker than children?

A

This is due to increased myelination of axons during adolescence which allows signals to be transmitted quicker between neurons.

66
Q

What is a pet scan?

A

A type of imaging that involves injecting a radioactive nucleotide tracer into the patient which emits gamma rays that helps to determine the metabolic activity/glucose metabolism in different organs and tissues at the cellular level.
This testing is useful for evaluating tissues for cancer, heart disease, memory disorders, seizure disorders, etc.

67
Q

What is an MRI?

A

Magnetic resonance imaging, a type of -imaging that uses radio waves through a strong magnetic field that allows visualization of the different parts of the brain and other organs. It provides a detailed 3D structure of the tissue overall, but not at the cellular level like a PT scan.

68
Q

What is an EEG?

A

Electroencephalography, it measures the electrical activity of neurons in the brain by looking at this sum total of the electrical fields in regions.
It is useful in determining if a person is having a seizure, if they are asleep or awake, if they are engaged in different cognitive tasks.

69
Q

What is a fMRI?

A

A combination of an MRI which gives a detailed structure of the brain and imaging that measures oxygenated blood flow throughout the brain.

70
Q

What is a CT/CAT scan?

A

Computerized axial tomography, takes multiple x-rays from different angles to produce cross sectional images. It is useful for diagnosing tumors, fractures, a bleeding vessel after stroke, etc.

71
Q

What are the pros and cons of a CT scan?

A

Pros:
Don’t take as long as MRIs, take about 10 minutes.
Aren’t noisy like MRIs
Cons:
Do expose the patient to a small amount of radiation which increases risk of developing cancer later in life unlike MRIs.

72
Q

What is melatonin?

A

It is a hormone derived from serotonin that affects our sleep, blood pressure, and more. It starts secreting around 9 PM and stops around 8 AM.

73
Q

What is cortisol?

A

Also known as the stress hormone, it is released by the adrenal cortex and it regulates different things such as stress, immune response, and metabolism.

74
Q

What regions of the brain are involved in the drug reward pathway?

A

Ventral tegmental area (dopamine is produced here), nucleus accumbens, parts of the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala

75
Q

What is map expansion?

A

This occurs when a function is carried out very frequently through repeated behavior causing the size of the cortical map portion dedicated to this brain region to grow.

76
Q

What is long term potentiation?

A

The repeated stimulation of a neuron causing strengthening of synapses which produces a long lasting increase in signal transmission between those 2 neurons.

77
Q

Compare the 2 types of neural plasticity

A

Synaptic plasticity - changes which can be immediate or delayed; causing increased/decreases neurotransmitter vesicles and/or postsynaptic receptors
Structural plasticity - changes which occur during a longer time period, including sprouting, rerouting, and pruning between neurons

78
Q

Synaptic plasticity results from changes in the firing rate of the (presynaptic/postsynaptic) neuron which alters the amount of neurotransmitter released in the synaptic cleft & number of receptors on the postsynaptic target.

A

Presynaptic neuron

79
Q

For the parasympathetic division, at the synapse between the postganglionic neuron and effector target, what kind of receptor is present (adrenergic, nicotinic, muscurinic)?

A

muscurinic

80
Q

Adrenergic receptors are present only in the (parasympathetic/sympathetic) division.

A

Sympathetic division at the postganglion; think “Adrenaline” another name for epinephrine

81
Q

Compare and contrast the two neurotransmitters: epinephrine and norepinephrine

A

Epinephrine - found in the PNS only, associated with activation of the sympathetic NS and stress response
Norepinephrine - found in CNS & PNS; in the cortex it deals w/ attention & emotional processing, in PNS it deals with activation of sympathetic NS

Malika Psychology MCAT (12 decks)

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