Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Pyschology > Paper3: Aggression > Flashcards

Paper3: Aggression Flashcards

1
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

What is the difference in hot- and cold-blooded aggression?

And the case studies assossiated with these

A

Hot (reactive aggression): an impulsive behavior coupled with physiological arousal
- Case:Tony Martin shot 3 intruders, killed one (a 16 year old) following burglaries at his home. Initially, sentenced to life imprisonment.

Cold: a premeditated way of getting what you want
- Rape and murder
- Case: the Moors Murders: Ian Brady and Myra Hindley
- Forensic psychology is primarily concerned with this type.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

What are the brain regions associated with the limbic system?

A

Includes: Amygdala, hippocampus and thalamus/hypothalamus, OFC

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

What is a key role of the limbic circuit?

A

Maclean: limbic system in the mammalian brain is the centre of emotion and learning
Collection of structures in the centre of the brain.

One of its functions is to processes emotional responses Such as aggression.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

What is the limbic circuit also known as?

A

Papez circuit as Papez first identified the contents of the limbic system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

What are three key regions of the limbic system involved in aggression?

A

Orbital frontal cortex - controls executive function (decision making) which tries to control aggression produced by the limbic system.
Amygdala - linked to the production of aggressive behaviour, FMRI’s show increased activity during aggressive responses. (Gospic)
Hypothalamus - role in integrating and expressing emotional responses, it can trigger aggressive behaviours as part of the fight or flight response.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

What evidence is there for a role of serotonin in violent behaviour?

Animal studies:
What is the link between Kluver & Bucy’s (1937) research in animals and Kluver-Bucy syndrome

A

They discovered that the destruction of the amygdala in a dominant monkey caused it to lose social dominance.
Klüver-Bucy Syndrome, a rare neuropsychiatric disorder from bilateral temporal lobe lesions (affecting the hippocampus and amygdala), leads to symptoms like placidity.
An amygdala-lesioned animal immediately grabbed a grape near a rubber snake (A) and then explored the snake (B), behavior atypical in normal animals, which avoid snakes entirely.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

What did Mark & Ervin (1970) report in a patient receiving stimulation to her amygdala?

A

Stimulation near the amygdala produces fear, anxiety, defensive, and sometimes violent behaviour.
found a woman receiving painless stimulation to her amygdala became enraged and smashed her guitar against the wall

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

Explain the research by Gospic et al. (2011), and how it sheds light on the role of the limbic system in aggression.

A

Participants played The Ultimatum Game, with Subject A as the Proposer and Subject B as the Responder. Subject B experienced mild provocation.
MRI scans revealed increased amygdala activity when Subject B rejected offers. However, taking benzodiazepines, which reduce anxiety, halved rejections and lowered amygdala activity, suggesting a link between reactive aggression and amygdala function.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

Explain the relationship between serotonin and aggression.

A
  • Serotonin has inhibitory effects on the brain - slowing down neuronal activity
  • Aggression in humans and animals is associated with low levels of serotonin
  • Normal levels in the OFC reduce the firing of neurons and allow for a greater degree of behavioural self control
  • Decreased levels disturb this mechanism reducing self control and increasing impulsive behaviour including aggression
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

What evidence is there for a role of serotonin in violent behaviour?
1. Animal Studies

A

pharmacologically blocking or genetically modifying 5-HT2A receptors.
mice with a deletion of the gene responsible for 5-HT2A expression exhibit less aggressive behaviour compared to typical mice. Stimulation this receptor subtype can lead to aggression, especially when the animal perceives threat or competition

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

What evidence is there for a role of serotonin in violent behaviour?

  1. Anti-psychotics
A

drugs for schizophrenia block the D2 receptor but some impacts on other receptors. Risperidone and Olanzapine block the 5-Ht2A receptor, and has been shown to reduce aggression in patients with schizophrenia or dementia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

What evidence is there for a role of serotonin in violent behaviour?

  1. Serotonergic Metabolites
A

Virkunnen compared levels of serotonin breakdown product (5-HIAA) in the cerebrospinal fluid of violent impulsive and non-impulsive offenders. The levels were significantly lower in the impulsive offenders because the reduction of the 5-H1AA means there’s decreased serotonin activity which effects the control of impulsive (reactive) aggression
So less serotgoneric metabolites so more serotonin levels in non-impulsive offenders.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

What evidence is there for a role of serotonin in violent behaviour?

  1. Serotonin-Depletion Studies
A

Passamonti used acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) to temporarily lower serotonin levels by reducing tryptophan, serotonin’s precursor. Results showed ATD decreased connectivity between the PFC and amygdala when participants viewed angry faces, suggesting low serotonin may impair the PFC’s regulation of the amygdala’s aggression-related responses.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

What evidence is there for a role of serotonin in violent behaviour?
5. Post-Mortem Studies

A

Rosell and Siever reviewed post moretem studies indicating that individuals with histories of impulsive aggression show an upregulation of 5-HT2A receptors (perhaps compensating for low serotonin) in the PFC, particularly in the OFC.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q
  1. Neural Mechanisms of Aggression

2 strengths and 1 limit

A

P: A strength of the limbic system’s involvement in aggression is case study evidence showing that damage to it can lead to aggressive behaviors.
Eg: Burns & Swerdlow reported a case where pedophilia developed after a tumor in the orbitofrontal cortex, resolving after surgery.
Ex: Similarly, Sumer’s case of a 14-year-old girl’s extreme aggression was linked to a tumor pressing on her amygdala.
C: However, case studies may not be generalizable, and it’s important to identify the specific amygdala connections affected.
L: Overall, while case studies support the link between limbic activity and aggression, they should be interpreted with caution and corroborated by other research.

P: A strength of the serotonin explanation for aggression comes from drug research showing that increasing serotonin reduces aggression.
Eg: Berman (2009) found that participants given paroxetine (boosting serotonin) gave fewer and less intense shocks in a lab game, especially those with a history of aggression.
Ex: This suggests increased serotonin reduces aggression in a controlled setting, providing evidence beyond correlational studies.
C: However, the lack of direct measures of serotonergic activity limits interpretation, as it’s unclear if the reduction in aggression is due to serotonin or other effects of paroxetine.
L: These findings don’t conclusively establish a causal link between serotonin and aggression so may lower the internal validity. Future studies should use neuroimaging or biochemical assays to measure serotonin receptor activity.

P: A limitation of research on the neural basis of aggression is that much of it is correlational, limiting causality.
Eg: Correlational studies are often necessary due to ethical constraints, as directly provoking aggression would risk harm to participants. Researchers rely on brain scans to observe links between aggression and brain structures like the amygdala or OFC.
Ex: However, without experimental manipulation, it’s unclear if changes in these areas cause aggression or result from it.
L: This raises the possibility of a third variable, such as fluctuating neurotransmitter levels, influencing both aggression and neural changes. Consequently, the correlational nature limits conclusions about causality so lowers the internal validity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q
  1. Hormonal mechanisms of aggression

What is androgen?

A

A male sex hormone responsible for masculine features eg: testosterone

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q
  1. Hormonal mechanisms of aggression

Suggest 3 reasons why testosterone is thought to have a role in aggression in males.

A

males are generally more aggressive than females
-testosterone has a role for regulating social behaviour via its influence on the brain implicated with aggression
-Daly and Wilson: Aggression is highest in males 20+ years old when testosterone peaks

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q
  1. Hormonal mechanisms of aggression

What animal data (causation) support the role of testosterone in aggression?

A

Giammanco: experimental increases in testosterone increased aggression and the removal of testes decreased aggression

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q
  1. Hormonal mechanisms of aggression

What did Dolan et al.’s (2001) study find with regard to testosterone and aggression?

A

positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggression in 60 male offenders in UK maximum security hospitals. The men mostly had personality disorders and a history of impulsive (reactive) violent behaviour

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q
  1. Hormonal mechanisms of aggression

What evidence is there for the role of hormones in female aggression?

A

progesterone plays a role in aggression in women
Levels of progesterone vary during ovulation cycle are lowest after menstruation

Ziomkiewick found a negative correlation between progesterone and aggression in women

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q
  1. Hormonal mechanisms of aggression

1 strength and 1 limit

A

P: A strength of the hormonal explanation of aggression is supporting empirical evidence.
Eg: Mehta and Josephs (2006) measured testosterone levels before and after a competitive game loss. Following the loss, 73% of those with increased testosterone chose to re-challenge the winners (operationalized as aggression), compared to only 22% of those whose testosterone levels decreased.
Ex: This highlights that increased testosterone after a status loss can lead to more aggressive actions, supporting its role in context-dependent aggression.
Cou: The study implies a narrow definition of aggression, as real-world aggression includes verbal and physical confrontations, which may not be fully captured here.
L: Thus, while testosterone may influence aggression in competitive contexts, its effect might differ in more diverse social situations.

P: A limitation of the explanation that increased testosterone levels increase aggression is that it seems incomplete.
Eg: Carre and Mehta (2011) proposed the dual-hormone hypothesis, which suggests high testosterone only promotes aggression when cortisol levels are low. When cortisol is high, it inhibits testosterone’s effect on aggression.
Ex: Explaining aggression through a single hormone may be overly reductionist, as multiple hormonal and social factors interact to influence behavior.
L: This limits the validity of testosterone-based explanations, as it overlooks cortisol’s moderating role. A more nuanced, multi-hormone approach, accounting for environmental factors, may better reflect the biological basis of aggression.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

What are the 4 broad approaches to the study of the influence of genetics and environment on behaviour (such as aggression)

A

1) twin studies
2) adoption studies
3) candidate studies
4) family studies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

Explain the rationale for twin studies

A
  • MZ twins share all their genes, so differences between them are assumed to be due to environmental factors.
  • If both MZ twins are highly aggressive, it suggests a genetic influence.
  • The degree of similarity between twins on a trait is called the concordance rate.
  • Concordance rates measure the presence of the same trait in both members of a twin pair.
  • These rates are often compared with DZ twins, who are 50% genetically related.
  • Higher concordance rates in MZ twins suggest a heritable component to the trait being measured.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

What did Coccaro et al. (1997) show in their twin studies

A

Studied aggressive behaviours (Physical assault) in adult twins
He found that MZ twins had concordance rates of 50% and DZ at 19% suggesting because MZ twins share the same DNA there’s certainly a genetic component to aggression and DZ twins share only 50% of their DNA
Verbal aggression was also 28% in MZ and 7% DZ.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

How is this study different than other twin studies that have looked at the influence of genetics on aggression?

A
  • A child is biologically related to their biological parents (genetic component) and shares an environment with adoptive parents (environmental component).
  • Higher concordance with adoptive parents suggests the trait is influenced by the environment.
  • Higher concordance with biological parents suggests a genetic component to the trait.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

Describe the findings of 2 studies that have examined the role of genetics on aggressions using adoptions.

A

Rhee and Waldman: Conducted a meta-analysis of adoption studies on aggression and antisocial behavior, finding genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression, similar to twin study findings.

Hutchings and Mednick: Studied 14,000 adoptions in Denmark and found a higher incidence of criminal convictions in adopted boys whose biological fathers had criminal records. However, criminal convictions don’t always indicate aggression, limiting internal validity.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

Which gene has been implicated in aggression, and what is the mechanism thought to be?

A

Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA gene)
-controls production of MAO-A enzyme
-this enzyme regulations the metabolism of monoamines – breaks these down

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

Which allele of the gene has been associated with aggression?

A

The MAOA-L (low activity allele) – called the warrior gene - results in low activity of the MAO-A enzyme
This gene has been linked to high levels of aggression.
Which contradicts previous research which shows low levels of serotonin is associated with high aggression not high levels of serotonin.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

Which neurotransmitters does the MAO enzyme metabolise (break down)?

A

Monoamines – serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

Explain the relationship between a dysfunction of the gene that codes for the enzyme, and the levels of each of these transmitters and how this impacts behaviour.

A

Low activity allele of a gene produces less or low activity of a protein eg: enzyme
Less enzyme being synthesised means less neurotransmitter is broken down/metaboised so means there’s higher levels of neurotransmitter at the synapse.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

Why is this referred to a the ‘warrior gene’?

A

MAOA has been dubbed the “warrior gene” because the low-activity variant is more common in populations with a history of warfare, with 2/3 of these populations carrying the low-activity version.

Lea and Chambers (2007) found that 56% of New Zealand Maori men carried the MAOA-L variant, compared to 34% of Caucasians. Maori people are known for their warrior culture.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

How did Brunner et al’s(1993) study implicate the MOAO-L gene variant in aggression?

A

Brunner et al (1993) studied a Dutch family in which 28 of the males behaved very aggressively and violently (e.g. rape, attempted murder and assault).
These men were found to have abnormally low levels of MAO-A enzyme and the MAOA-L gene variant (sometimes referred to a Brunner Syndrome).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

How did Stuart’s (2014) study suggest that the MAOA-L variant is implicated in aggression?

A

Found that of 97 men convicted of intimate partner violence (IPV) those with the MAOA-L variant gene were the most violent perpetrators and this resulted in the worst injuries on their partners.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

4: environmental interactions

How did Caspi et al. (2000) suggest that there may be a gene x environment interaction with MAOA-L?

A

The MAOA-L gene is linked to adult aggression only when combined with traumatic life experiences, as explained by the diathesis-stress model.

Studied of 500 male children found that those with MAOA-L were more likely to behave antisocially if mistreated as children. However, children with MAOA-H or those with MAOA-L who were not mistreated did not show antisocial behavior. This combination of genetic vulnerability and environmental stress leads to aggression. These findings were also replicated by Frazzetto et al. (2007).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

1 strength

A

A strength of the genetic explanation for aggression is the empirical support for its heritability.
Eg: Rhee & Waldman (2002) conducted a meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies, finding that genetic factors account for 41% of aggression variance, suggesting a substantial hereditary influence.
Ex: This implies that aggression is partly genetic, reflecting a diathesis-stress model.
C: However, the 41% variance highlights the role of other factors, such as family dynamics and social experiences, which interact with genetic predispositions.
L: This approach is valid as it considers both genetic and environmental influences, aligning with evidence that aggression results from their complex interplay.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q
  1. Genetic factors of aggression

2 limitations of the genetic explanation
of aggression

A

P: difficulty measuring the effects of genetics alone and separating them from the environment.
Eg: McDermott (2009) found that participants with MAOA-L behaved aggressively in a money-allocation experiment only when provoked; otherwise, they acted similarly to MAOA-H participants.
Ex: This suggests aggression is better explained by an interactionist approach, where both genetic vulnerability (MAOA-L) and environmental factors (provocation) interact, complicating measurement.
L: While the diathesis-stress model explains this interaction, it doesn’t clarify the relative contribution of genetics and the environment, undermining the validity of a purely genetic explanation.

P: there are likely to be multiple genes involved in aggression which makes it difficult to research.
Eg: Stuart (2014) found that intimate partner violence in men was associated with both the MAOA-L gene and the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTT), with the combination of both being most linked to IPV.
Ex: This indicates that isolating one gene is reductionist. Research is increasingly focusing on multiple genes; Vassos (2014) found no association between a single gene and aggression, while Tielbeek (2018) identified 40 genes linked to aggression in a study of 30,000 individuals.
L: This challenges the idea that a single gene causes aggression, questioning the validity of a one-gene explanation.

Moral-l less of it to break down serotonin so higher levels of seoritin but 5htt reuptake presynaptic neuron So low levels of serotonin as they’re assossiated with High levels of aggression

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

What is Lorenz’s definition of aggression

A

‘the fighting instinct in beasts and man that is directed against members of the same species’

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

What assumptions does Lorenz make that make the study of aggression in animals relevant to that in humans?

A
  • Aggression is an instinct. It occurs in all members of a species without the need for learning. It is innate and mostly genetically determined.
  • We can study non-human animals and extrapolate to humans because we are all subject to the same laws of natural selection.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

What is meant by an ‘adaptive’ behaviour?

A

refers to behavior that enables a person to get along in his or her environment with greatest success and least conflict with others.

  • Help survival
  • Protect resources (land/food)
  • Establish dominance hierarchies
  • Access to females
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

Give 2 reasons why aggression may be adaptive

A

Ethological explanations suggest that the main function of aggression is adaptive.

Adaptive Function 1:
After an aggressive encounter, the loser is not killed but forced to move, reducing competition for resources by spreading individuals across an area.

Adaptive Function 2:
Aggression helps form a dominance hierarchy, which offers benefits like mating rights and reduces future aggression once established.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

What is a dominance hierarchy, and why might it be adaptive?

A

Many species establish dominance hierarchies through aggressive, often ritualized interactions, suggesting this behavior is adaptive.

Doves, as non-hunters, lack this inhibition but can simply fly away to avoid conflict.
Lorenz believes humans, like doves, are naturally inclined to avoid aggression but, with the ability to develop weapons of mass destruction, lack instinctive inhibitions.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

What evidence is there of dominance hierarchies in humans?

A

Pettit et al (1988) studied play groups of young children and observed that aggressive interactions were an important aspect of how some children gain dominance over others.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

What is a ritual?

A

A series of behaviours carried out in a set order.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

What does ritualistic aggression typically comprise in animals?

A

Most aggressive interactions consist of ritualistic signalling (snarling, displaying claws, pushing contests) and rarely becomes physical.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

What did Lorenz (1966) note about aggression in animals?

A

Lorenz (1966) observed that in fights between animals, actual injury is rare. Because the adaptive value is to warn off the lower ranking animal by being aggressive beforehand

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

What is an appeasement display, and what is their purpose?

A

Lorenz (1966) observed that in fights between animals, actual injury is rare.
suggested that in intra-species, aggressive confrontations end with a ritual appeasement display to indicate the acceptance of defeat and stop any further aggression from the victor to preventing actual injury
Adaptive because if aggressive encounters ended with injury or death it could threaten the existence of the species.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

What was Schenkel’s (1967) opposing view to Lorenz view on appeasement signals?

A

Lorenz suggested that the wolf showing its jugular vein is an appeasement signal.
argues against this view and suggests that this ‘submissive’ pose is actually a challenge that leads to further fighting.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

What is an Innate Releasing Mechanism (IRM)?

A

A biological structure or process which is activated by an external stimulus, in turn triggers a fixed action pattern.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

What is a fixed action pattern (FAP)?

A

These are a sequence of stereotyped pre- programmed behaviours triggered by an innate releasing mechanism.
Stimulus -> IRM -> FAP

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

What are the 6 main features of FAPs, according to Lea (1984)?

A
  • Stereotyped (unchanging sequence)
  • Universal within the species
  • Unaffected by learning
  • ‘Ballistic’ (once started they must continue)
  • Single Purpose - only occurring in one type of situation
  • A response to an identifiable and specific stimulus - called a releaser if intra-specific
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

How did Tinbergen (1951) demonstrate FAPs in male sticklebacks?

A

Male stickleback fish are territorial during mating season, and a red underbelly triggers an attack response (FAP) when another male enters their territory. Tinbergen found that sticklebacks would attack models with a red spot, regardless of shape, and the FAP ran to completion without further stimuli.

52
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

Strengths - How would you use arguments from genetics (lesson 03) and evolution (lesson 05) to provide support that would suggest that aggressive behaviour is innate, and therefore supportive of the ethological approach?

A

Use them as strengths
Eg: A strength of the ethnological explaination of aggression is that there’s supportive evidence from genetics/evolutionary approach to explaination aggression

53
Q

4 - Ethological Explanation of Aggression

2 limitations

A

P: A limitation of ritualistic aggression is that in certain species it appears the aggression is more than just ritualistic.
Eg: Jane Goodall (2010) investigated chimpanzees at the Gombe Stream National park in Tanzania. In the ‘four year war’ male chimps in one community set about systematically slaughtering all the members of another group. Sometimes pinning down their victim.
Ex: Goodall observed aggressive attacks between rivals that continued despite victims offering signals of appeasement.
L: This does not fit with Lorenz’s assertions and therefore challenges his suggestion about the role of appeasement signals and ritualistic aggression.

P: A limitation of the ethological explanation is that it ignores the role of culture. There is evidence that aggressive behaviour is more common in some cultures than others
Eg: Nisbett (1993) found a north-south divide for homicide in USA with southern states having higher homicide rates. This was only true of reactive aggression triggered by arguments.
Ex: Nisbett explained this as a culture of honour which is a learnt social norm.
L: This provides evidence that cannot be explained by the ethological approach and shows how potentially culture can override innate influences

54
Q

5 – Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression

What is a central premise of the evolutionary explanation of behaviour?

A

Evolutionary explanation examines how adaptive behaviours of our ancestors are passed down from generations through genetic transmission

Environment of Evolutionary Adaptiveness (EEA) suggests behaviours witnessed today would have evolved due to the environment 10,000 to 5 million years ago

55
Q

5 – Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression

Name 5 things that aggression may have helped with that make it adaptive.

A

Aggression served an adaptive value:
- Secure resources
- Food
- Territory
- Females
- Establish hierarchical dominance social status

56
Q

5 – Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression

If aggression is adaptive in human males due to natural selection, who is doing the selecting?

A

Aggression has been selected for by females

57
Q

5 – Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression

What is cuckoldry, and why is a maladaptive from an evolutionary perspective?

A

Cuckoldry (being a husband of a cheating wife) creates a threat of paternity uncertainty
It is a waste of resources to raise children who are not a male’s own as it contributes to the survival of a competitor’s genes

58
Q

5 – Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression

Why might cuckoldry have led to the evolution of aggression in men?

A

-In our evolutionary past, men who avoided cuckoldry were more reproductively successful.
-anti-cuckoldry behaviors have evolved to drive aggressive strategies to retain partners and prevent infidelity.
-These behaviors were adaptive, as males couldn’t be certain of paternity, and sexual jealousy evolved to avoid cuckoldry.

59
Q

5 – Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression

What mate retention strategies did Wilson & Daly (1996) identify?

A

Wilson and Daly identified mate retention strategies which involve aggression and physical violence
Direct guarding: male vigilance over a partners behaviour eg: Tracking them
Negative inducement: issuing threats of dire consequences eg: threatening to kill themselves if their partner leaves

60
Q

5 – Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression

What impact did Wilson et al. (1995) find male retention strategies have on their partners?

A

Wilson et al (1995)
-Found that women who reported mate retention strategies in their partners were twice as likely to have suffered physical violence from their partners
-Of these women, 73% required medical attention and 53% said they feared for their lives

61
Q

5 – Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression

Why might bullying be seen as evolutionarily adaptive?

A

-Bullying involves a power imbalance, with a more powerful individual using aggression against a weaker person.
-Traditionally, bullying has been seen as a maladaptive behavior linked to poor social skills.
-However, the evolutionary explanation suggests that ancestors may have used bullying as an adaptive strategy to enhance survival and create reproductive opportunities.

62
Q

5 – Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression

Why does Volk (2012) suggest that bullying may be adaptive?

A

Characteristics associated with bullying (eg: dominance, resource acquisition, and strength) are attractive to females as they suggest an ability to ward off rivals (Volk, 2012).
These traits increase access to females while minimizing competition from other males, making them evolutionarily advantageous since males can reproduce more.

63
Q

5 – Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression

What is the evolutionary explanation for female bullying?

A

Campbell suggest female bullying more often takes place within a relationship to help secure the males fidelity
The partner continues to provide resources for future offspring and the behaviour is naturally selected because it increases the women’s reproductive success

64
Q

5 – Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression

Strengths of the evolutionary explanation of aggression

A

P: has the ability to explain gender differences in terms of adaptive functions.
Eg: Campbell (1999) argues that physical aggression is maladaptive for females with offspring, as it risks their survival and that of their young so females may use verbal aggression to retain resource-providing partners.
Ex: Puts (2010) suggests that male traits like greater muscle mass and more robust jaw bones, indicate ancestral competition among males.
L: This implies that evolutionary arguments can shed light on the biological basis of gender differences in aggression, supporting the validity and generalizability of this explanation across cultures.

65
Q

5 – Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression

Limitations of the evolutionary explanation of aggression

A

P: There are cultural variations in aggression.
Eg: Thomas (1958) found that the !Kung San people of the Kalahari discourage aggression from childhood, as it results in a loss of status. In contrast, the Yanomamo people of Venezuela and Brazil are known as the “fierce people.”
Ex: If aggression were evolutionarily determined, it should be universal across cultures, as it enhances survival and reproductive success.
L: This challenges the validity of the explanation. However, Lee (1979) questions whether the !Kung San are truly peaceful, citing a high homicide rate. Observer bias may also influence findings, reducing validity.

P: A limitation of the evolutionary explanation of aggression is its determinism, ignoring social factors.
Eg: The theory suggests aggression is biologically determined by adaptations beyond an individual’s control.
Ex: This emphasizes nature over nurture and overlooks cognitive aspects of aggression, such as inhibitory control or the influence of social role models.
L: This has ethical implications, suggesting aggression is innate and uncontrollable, which undermines personal responsibility. A soft deterministic approach could acknowledge aggression as biologically predisposed but also influenced by environmental factors.

66
Q

6: Frustration-aggression hypothesis

What is the Frustration-aggression hypothesis

A

Frustrations occurs if our attempt to achieve a goal is blocked by an external factor.
This creates an AGGRESSIVE DRIVE which leads to aggressive behaviours such as:
- Violent fantasies
- Verbal outbursts
- Physical violence

67
Q

6: Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Explain Dollard’s (1939) explanation of the link between frustration and aggression.

A

Dollard et al. (1939) formulated the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis (FAH), which states that:

-Frustration always leads to aggression.
-Aggression is always a result of frustration.
- based on Freud’s concept of catharsis, where aggression is seen as an innate drive.
- According to Freud, the only way to reduce aggression is actively releasing it.
- Frustration occurs when our attempts to achieve a goal are blocked by an external factor, leading to an aggressive drive.
-This drive results in aggressive behavior, which is cathartic, as it satisfies the frustration and reduces further aggression, leaving us feeling better for “getting it off our chest.”

68
Q

6: Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Give 3 reasons why might aggression not always be expressed directly against the source?

A

Aggression isn’t always expressed directly against the source of frustration because :
1) Cause of frustration may be abstract
2) Cause may be too powerful and we may risk punishment by aggression against it
3) Cause may be unavailable at the time

69
Q

6: Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Explain the psychodynamic concepts of sublimation and displacement with regard to aggression

A

Psychodynamic theory suggests we use ego defense mechanisms to protect ourselves, including two that help in the catharsis of aggression:

Sublimation: Redirecting aggression into socially acceptable activities like sports.

Displacement: Directing aggression onto a less threatening target, such as shouting at a sibling or screaming into a pillow when unable to express it directly to the source

70
Q

6: Frustration-aggression hypothesis

What was Berkowitz’s (1969) revised frustration-aggression hypothesis?

A

proposed a revised frustration-aggression hypothesis:
- Frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression
- Aggression would only occur in the presence of certain cues, such as the presence of weapons will be more likely to trigger aggression.

71
Q

6: Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Strength

A

P: A strength of the frustration-aggression hypothesis is the supportive evidence for displacement from a meta-analysis of displaced aggression.
Eg: Marcus-Newhall (2000) examined studies where aggression was directed at a different target than the source of frustration. They found participants were more likely to aggress toward an innocent party when the source was unavailable for retaliation.
Ex: This demonstrates that frustration can lead to displaced aggression.
L: As a meta-analysis, this strengthens the validity of Dollard’s theory by showing its reliability across multiple studies.

72
Q

6: Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Limitations

A

P: A limitation of the displacement of aggression as cathartic is evidence showing it may not be effective.
Ex: Bushman found that participants who vented their anger by hitting a punchbag became more angry and aggressive, with doing nothing proving more effective. Bushman compares venting to using petrol to extinguish a fire, suggesting that it can actually increase aggression.
Ex: This research challenges the catharsis theory, suggesting that venting may encourage rumination, intensifying emotional responses rather than diffusing them.
L: This weakens the validity of the frustration-aggression hypothesis, as it undermines the assumption that venting reduces aggression, questioning its generalizability.

P: A limitation of the link between frustration and aggression is that it may only apply in certain circumstances and is tied to negative affect more generally.
Eg: Berkowitz reformulated the frustration-aggression hypothesis into “negative affect theory,” proposing that frustration is just one of many aversive stimuli (e.g., loneliness, jealousy, pain) that create negative feelings, which may lead to various responses, including but not limited to aggression.
Ex: This suggests that frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression, and aggression can occur without frustration.
L: Berkowitz’s theory broadens the explanation of aggression, undermining the validity of Dollard’s frustration-aggression hypothesis.

73
Q

7: Social Learning Theory

What is the difference between how direct and indirect learning affect aggression?

A

Direct Learning (Conditioning):

Bandura acknowledged that aggression can be learned directly through operant conditioning.
A child who snatches a toy learns that aggression brings rewards if the behavior is positively reinforced.

Indirect Learning (Social Learning Theory):

Bandura also proposed observational learning as an indirect mechanism.
Children acquire aggressive behaviors by observing role models performing aggressive behaviour
If the model’s aggression is rewarded, the child may imitate (vicarious reinforcement).
If the model is punished, the child sees vicarious punishment and may avoid aggression.
Models can be live (parents, teachers, peers) or symbolic (media).

74
Q

7: Social Learning Theory

What are the steps by which observational learning leads to aggression, through a process of vicarious reinforcement? Include the terms imitation, role models, identification and vicarious reinforcement.

A

1) Aggression is learned through observation and imitation of role models.

2) Individuals are more likely to imitate behaviors of role models they identify with (e.g., based on gender, status, attractiveness, or similarity).

3) Aggression is influenced by the consequences observed, through vicarious reinforcement.

4) Aggressive acts performed by a role model are internalized and reproduced in the future.

5) The individual internalizes the model’s aggression, seeing rewards as a result of the behavior, making it acceptable and likely to be repeated.

75
Q

7: Social Learning Theory

How do Bandura’s 4 mediational processes relate to aggression?

A

Attention: The child must focus on the aggressor and the aggressive act.
Retention: The behavior must be stored in long-term memory for future recall.
Reproduction: The child must have the ability to physically reproduce the behavior.
Motivation: The child is motivated to imitate if they observe rewards or benefits. (Vicarious reinforcement)

76
Q

7: Social Learning Theory

How is self-efficacy related to the expression of aggression?

A

the extent to which we believe our actions will achieve desired goals
- child’s confidence in their ability to be aggressive grows as they learn that aggression can bring rewards
- Consider a child who hits other children to get their toys, they learn that they have the motor skill to force a child to hand over a toy
- Their sense of self-efficacy develops with each successful outcome

77
Q

7: Social Learning Theory

Explain the aims, procedure, findnings and conclusions (APFC) of Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment.

A

Aim: Investigate if aggression can be learned through social learning theory principles.

Method:
72 children (36 male, 36 female), aged 3-6, were assigned to one of three groups for 10 minutes:
Aggressive model: Child observed an adult hitting and shouting at a Bobo doll.
Non-aggressive model: Child observed an adult playing quietly with a construction set.
Control group: Child did not observe a model.
Children were then frustrated by being denied toys and placed alone in a room with aggressive and non-aggressive toys and a Bobo doll for 20 minutes.

Results:
Children who saw the aggressive model exhibited more aggressive acts.
Boys imitated same-sex models more, while girls showed more physical aggression with male models and more verbal aggression with female models.

Conclusion:
Aggressive behavior can be learned through observation and imitation of a model.

78
Q

7: Social Learning Theory

Strengths

A

P: A strength of SLT is that it is supported by research showing aggression can be socially reinforced through peer groups.
Eg: Poulin and Boivin (2000) studied aggressive boys (9-12 years old) and found they formed cliques where aggression was reinforced and rewarded, leading to stable antisocial behavior.
Ex: This supports SLT’s claim that aggression is learned and maintained through observation, reinforcement, and social approval.
C: However, the study’s focus on young boys limits generalisability to females or adults.
L: Despite this, it provides strong evidence for SLT by demonstrating how aggression is reinforced through observation and social dynamics.

P: A strength of SLT is its ability to account for cultural variations in aggression.
Eg: Christianson (2006) found that the IKung San people of the Kalahari Desert discourage aggression, leading to lower levels of aggressive behavior in children.
Ex: The lack of reinforcement and role models for aggression reduces the likelihood of imitation, supporting the cultural context dependence of aggression.
L: This strengthens SLT’s validity by showing how aggression varies according to cultural norms and reinforcement patterns.

79
Q

7: Social Learning Theory

Limitation

A

P: A limitation of SLT in explaining aggression is its limited focus on biological influences.
Eg: While Bandura acknowledged a predisposition toward aggression, SLT emphasizes environmental factors like observation and reinforcement.
Ex: However, research supports the role of biological factors in aggression, such as genetic influences (e.g., MAOA gene), hormones (e.g., testosterone), and brain regions like the amygdala.
L: This suggests SLT may be insufficient as a standalone explanation, as it overlooks how biological and environmental factors interact. Therefore, SLT’s validity is limited in explaining aggression that is influenced by both learned and biological factors.

80
Q

8: Deindividuation

What is deindividuation?

A

A psychological state in which an individual has lowered levels of self evaluation and decreased concerns about evaluation by others, particularly when they are in a group.
This may free the individual from the constraints of social norms.

81
Q

8: Deindividuation

Who introduced the term deindividuation?

A

Crowd theory was first investigated by Gustave Le Bon to explain the behaviour of individuals in groups but Zimbardo (1969) proposed the theory of de-individuation.

82
Q

8: Deindividuation

How do social norms influence aggression?

A

In Western society, strong norms against aggression shape our identities. Normally, self-awareness and social norms prevent aggressive behavior. However, in a crowd, anonymity reduces self-assessment and individual identity, weakening inhibitions and allowing aggression, as the consequences and norms are overlooked.

83
Q

8: Deindividuation

How does Zimbardo see the role of anonymity in the individuated and deindividuated state?

A

o Zimbardo felt the role of anonymity was crucial
o In an individuated state our behaviour is rational and normative.
o In a deindividuated state our behaviours are emotional, impulsive, irrational, disinhibited and anti-normative and we lose our self-awareness, we stop monitoring and regulating our own behaviour and simply ‘live for the moment’ without thinking about the future.

84
Q

8: Deindividuation

What sorts of conditions promote aggression in the deindivuated state?

A

o Darkness
o Uniforms
o Disguise
o Drugs/ alcohol
o Crowds (the bigger the better)
o Major factor is a feeling of anonymity
o When anonymous we have less fear of retribution we are part of the faceless crowd)
o Anonymity provides fewer opportunities for others to judges negatively

85
Q

8: Deindividuation

Explain Prentice-Dunn & Rogers’ concept of private and public self-awareness, and how this relates to anonymity

A

Deindividuation increases aggression due to the consequences of anonymity, which reduce two types of self-awareness:

Private Self-Awareness: Focus shifts away from our feelings and behavior in a crowd, reducing self-criticism and encouraging deindividuation.

Public Self-Awareness: Concern for how others view us diminishes in a crowd, making us feel anonymous and less accountable for aggressive behavior.

86
Q

8: Deindividuation

Explain the research support is there for the effect of anonymity on aggression, from:
Malamuth (1981):

A

Questioned male undergraduates at a US university by asking them directly about their personal likelihood of committing such an act under conditions of guaranteed anonymity and immunity from punishment
• 35% said they would commit rape if there was no chance of being identified.

87
Q

8: Deindividuation

Strengths

A

P: A strength of the de-individuation explanation is evidence showing that anonymity encourages aggression, especially online.
Eg: Douglas & McCarthy (2001) found users engaging in trolling often concealed their identities.
Ex: This supports de-individuation theory, which suggests anonymity reduces self-awareness and accountability, promoting aggression.
Co: However, online aggression may not reflect real-world behavior, where social cues may inhibit aggression.
L: Despite this, the study’s ecological validity supports the link between anonymity and aggression.

P: A strength of the de-individuation hypothesis is real-world evidence identifying conditions that increase de-individuation.
Eg: Mann found baiting incidents were more likely in large, distant crowds, and darkness, aligning with de-individuation theory.
Ex: These conditions (darkness, anonymity, crowd size) lower self-awareness and foster aggression, as predicted by de-individuation theory.
Co: However, the study lacks control over extraneous variables, which may limit validity.
L: If reproducible, the study’s ecological validity strengthens the theory’s real-world applicability.

88
Q

8: Deindividuation

Limitations

A

A limitation of de-individuation theory is the evidence showing gender differences in responses to de-individuated conditions.
Eg: Cannavale et al. (1970) placed both males and females in deindividuated settings and found increased aggression only in males, a finding later supported by Diener (1973).
Ex: This reveals a beta bias in the theory, assuming men and women respond similarly to de-individuation, despite evidence suggesting differences. For instance, Johnson & Downing (1979) showed that females also displayed aggression under disguise, but gender differences in the context and expression of aggression need further exploration.
L: These gender-based differences suggest the theory lacks population validity, limiting its generalisability. Caution is needed when applying it to real-world contexts like crowd control or online group behaviour.

89
Q
  1. Institutional aggression

Define institutional aggression

A

Aggressive or violent behaviour which occurs within a formal organised setting (e.g. prisons).
Psychologists have researched institutions to better understand how they cultivate aggression and violence.

90
Q
  1. Institutional aggression

What are the 2 broad categories of explanations for institutional aggression and what is their emphasis and suggest about aggression in pensions

A

Dispositional: explanation of behaviour highlighting the role of an individual’s personality
Emphasis = Individual personality & differences
Suggests that high level of aggression in prisons is due to the personal characteristics of the prisoners in the prison

Situational: explanations that find the cause of the aggression as existing within the environment (this may include other people).
Emphasis = Social context & environment
Suggests that high level of aggression in prisons is due to the environment of the prison

91
Q
  1. Institutional aggression

What’s the importation model (Irwin and Cressey) as an explanation of the dispositional factors

A
  • Theory suggests Aggression in prison is imported from the outside due to prisoners’ personalities and past experiences.
  • Violent offenders bring traits like anger, impulsivity, and a history of using violence to solve problems.
  • Gang affiliations and street culture often persist within the prison environment.
  • Other factors include withdrawal from substance addiction, low education levels, high testosterone in young males, and genetic predispositions (e.g., MAOA-L gene).
92
Q
  1. Institutional aggression

Describe the 2 studies that support the Importation model / dispositional factors

A

1) Wang & Diamond: Anger, antisocial personality style and impulsivity found these personality traits were stronger predictors of institutional aggression than ethnicity and type of offence committed

2) DeLisi et al.: Low self control, particularly to lose temper easily, was a predictor of aggressive behaviour before and during incarceration

93
Q
  1. Institutional aggression

What is the deprivation model (Clemmer) as an explanation for situational factors

A
  • argues that causes of institutional aggression lie within the prison environment itself
  • Prisoners are deprived of freedom, independence, goods, safety, and heterosexual intimacy, so inmates become aggressive to get them
  • prison regime can be frustrating and ‘lock ups’ can cause frustration

Harsh conditions => stress => aggressive behavior as coping mechanism

94
Q
  1. Institutional aggression

What’s the 5 deprivations of prisoners relating to situational factors by Sykes

A
  • Deprivation of liberty: Loss of freedom; prisoners need permission for basic activities like eating or sleeping.

-Deprivation of autonomy: Lack of power and choice creates helplessness, leading to frustration and aggression.

-Deprivation of goods: Restricted access to everyday items like smartphones fosters frustration and aggression.

  • Deprivation of relationships: Loss of heterosexual relationships may cause emasculation and anxiety, heightening aggression.

-Deprivation of security: Fear of aggression from other inmates increases a sense of threat, prompting defensive aggression.

95
Q
  1. Institutional aggression

Describe 2 studies that support the deprivation model / situational factors

A

Steiner’s Study:
-Investigated 519 US prisons to identify factors predicting inmate aggression.
-Findings: Inmate-on-inmate violence was higher in prisons with more female staff, overcrowding, and inmates in protective custody.

Wilson’s Study:
-At HMP Woodhill (for violent prisoners), two conditions were tested:
1) Improved environment: Reduced noise (radio), better views, less claustrophobia/heat.
2)Standard environment: Hot, noisy, and overcrowded.
-Findings: Violent assaults on staff and inmates dropped to nearly zero in the improved condition.

96
Q
  1. Institutional aggression

Strengths of situational factors

A

A strength of the situational explanation is that it highlights how proximity can exacerbate violence
Eg: Cunningham analyzed 35 homocides in Texas prisoners and found motivations that aligned with Clemmer deprivation model. Many homocides involved cell-sharing inmates where conflicts over boundaries such as drugs, sexual activity and personal possessions – escalated aggression
Ex: These findings underscore the impact of environmental stressors and close quarters, supporting the deprivation model by showing how resource scarcity and invasion of personal space intensify hostility.
C: It must be acknowledged that this study’s focus on extreme cases like homicides may limit generalisability, as not all inmates react to deprivation with violence
L: Therefore, the study suggests that the model’s explanatory may be valid, but its scope may be context-specific.

97
Q
  1. Institutional aggression

Limitations of situational factors

A

P: A limitation of the deprivation model is its inconsistent evidence regarding the link between deprivation and aggression.
Ex: McCorkle et al. found overcrowding, lack of privacy, and absence of meaningful activities significantly increased peer violence, supporting the situational perspective.
Eg: However, Hensley et al. (2002) found no reduction in aggression in prisons allowing conjugal visits, challenging the idea that deprivation of intimacy directly causes violence.
L: These mixed findings suggest that while situational factors may contribute to aggression, their effects are not universally predictable, limiting the model’s reliability.

98
Q
  1. Institutional aggression

Strength of dispositional explaination of aggression

A

P: research showing that prison security level does not predict aggressive behavior.
Eg: Camp & Gaes studied 561 male inmates with similar criminal histories and aggression predispositions, randomly assigning 50% to low-security prisons and 50% to higher-security prisons.
Ex: Aggressive misconduct was around 35% in both groups, suggesting inmate characteristics were the key predictor of aggression, not the prison environment.
C: While the field experiment lacked full control over variables like specific environments and staff interactions, which could influence results,
L: It provides strong support for the dispositional explanation due to its high ecological validity and random allocation, enhancing internal validity.

99
Q
  1. Institutional aggression

Limitations of dispositional explanation

A

P: it’s neglect of the impact of prison officials and administrative practices on inmate aggression.
Eg: Dilulio (1991) introduced the Administrative Control Model (ACM), suggesting poor management-characterised by weak leadership, inconsistent rules, unengaged staff, and limited educational opportunities-creates environments ripe for violence.
Ex: According to Dilulio, these situational factors exert a stronger influence on aggressive behaviour than inmate characteristics alone. This challenges the dispositional model, highlighting that aggression may stem from the environment rather than individual traits.
L: practical application, as relying solely on a dispositional approach can undermine effective reform, as it overlooks the critical role of prison management, which could lead to ineffective or even harmful interventions aimed at reducing aggression.

100
Q
  1. Institutional aggression

Limitations of dispositional explanations of aggression

A

P: The deprivation model neglects the role of prison officials and administrative practices in influencing aggression.
Eg: Dilulio (1991) proposed the Administrative Control Model (ACM), suggesting poor management—such as weak leadership, inconsistent rules, disengaged staff, and limited education—creates conditions that foster violence.
Ex: Dilulio argued that these situational factors outweigh inmate characteristics, challenging the dispositional model by showing aggression may result more from the environment than individual traits.
L: This highlights the need for effective prison management reforms, as focusing solely on inmate traits could lead to ineffective or harmful interventions for reducing aggression.

101
Q
  1. Institutional aggression

General Strength

A

A strength of combining dispositional and situational factors is that it provides a more comprehensive explanation of aggression in prisons
Eg: Jiang and Fisher-Giorlando proposed a dual model: the importation model explains inmate-on-inmate violence while the deprivation model better explains violence directed at prison staff
Ex: Dons and Waid suggested an interactional model, arguing that deprivation alone does not cause aggression rather it must combine with inmates imported characteristics to trigger violence
L: this approach suggests both dispositional and situational factors contribute to aggression in prisons. Ignoring this interaction may limit the model’s practical applicability, as interventions based on a single-factor approach might fail to address the complex drivers of aggression in such environments.

102
Q

10a: media influences on aggression

What evidence did Robertson et al. (2013) Correlational study provide that excessive TV viewing is associated with aggressive and anti-social beahviour?

A

Concept: Hours of TV viewing, irrespective of whether the content is violent, may lead to aggressive behaviour

Evidence: studied 1037 people born in New Zealand and measured their TV viewing hours at regular intervals up to age 26.

Findings:
time spent watching TV was a reliable predictor of aggressive behaviour in adulthood convictions and violent crimes.
Those who watched the most TV were more likely to be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder. the amount of TV watched not the violence on the TV that was important.

Interpretation:
Indirect effect of reduced social interaction and poorer educational achievement

103
Q

10a: media influences on aggression

How did Bandura et al. (1963) extend their original findings of their observation, showing that aggressive behaviour could also be learned via viewing films?

A

Concept: Violent media may significantly influence aggression due to its explicit portrayal of violence.

Evidence: A replication of Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment compared children who watched a model beat the doll in person versus on film.

Findings: Both groups exhibited high levels of imitative aggression, with the real-life model group showing the most, followed closely by the film-watching group.

Interpretation: This demonstrates that vicarious reinforcement operates through media, as children imitate aggression by observing the consequences of others’ actions.

104
Q

10a: media influences on aggression

What did Paik & Comstock (1994) find in their meta-analysis?

A

Concept: Potentially the most significant media influence on aggression, as the content itself is explicitly violent

Evidence:
Carried out a meta-analysis of approximately 200 studies

Findings:
Found a positive correlation between viewing TV/film violence and anti-social behaviour

Interpretation:
However, the findings accounted for only 1-10% of variance in children’s aggressive behaviour - a minor effect compared with other sources

105
Q

10a: media influences on aggression

Outline Bartholow & Anderson’s (2002) experimental study of the effects of computer games on aggression.

A

Concept: Violent video games may increase aggression more than traditional media due to active participation and reinforcement through operant conditioning.

Evidence: Students who played a violent game (Mortal Kombat) chose higher noise levels (5.97/10) to punish an opponent in a task, compared to those who played a nonviolent game (Golf) (4.6/10).

Additional Evidence (Anderson et al., 2010): A meta-analysis of 136 studies found exposure to violent video games linked to increased aggression across cultures, with stronger effects in higher-quality studies and no publication bias.

Interpretation: Violent gaming has a significant impact on aggression, potentially more so than second-hand smoke on cancer.

106
Q

10a: media influences on aggression

What did DeLisi et al. (2013) report about juvenile offenders?

A

Concept: May have more powerful effects than traditional media, because (i) the player takes a more active role, and (i) game playing is more actively rewarding (operant conditioning)

Evidence:
DeLisi et al. (2013)
Studied 277 juvenile offenders which serious aggressive behaviours such as hitting a teacher/parent/gang fighting.

Findings:
offender’s aggressive behaviour was significantly correlated with how often they played violent computer games and how much they enjoyed them.

Interpretation:
They argued that aggression should be a public health issue like HIV/AIDS and computer game violence a significant risk factor

107
Q

10a: media influences on aggression

Strengths and limitations of experimental studies

A

+: Manipulating the independent variable (IV) allows us to establish causality, suggesting that playing aggressive games may cause an increase in aggressive behavior. Realistic aggression measures would be unethical.

-: Lab measures of aggression (e.g., delivering loud noise) lack mundane realism. In real life, aggression carries risks like retribution, whereas in labs, the environment is “safe,” reducing ecological validity.

108
Q

10a: media influences on aggression

Strengths and limitations of correlational studies

A

-: Potentially spurious results due to directionality (does A cause B, or B cause A?) and the possibility of a third variable.

Explanation:

Socialization Hypothesis: Aggressive media causes increased aggression.
Selection Hypothesis: People who are already aggressive are more likely to choose aggressive media.
Without further data, it’s impossible to determine which hypothesis is true.

109
Q

10a: media influences on aggression

Strengths and limitations of longitudinal studies

A

+:

-Temporal Causation: Can explore whether media aggression precedes violent behavior, strengthening causality claims.
-Developmental Insights: Track behavior changes across life stages (childhood to adulthood) and identify critical periods.
-Cumulative Effects: Assess if prolonged exposure to media aggression leads to more significant behavioral outcomes.

-:

-Manifestation of Aggression: Aggression may manifest differently over time (physical, verbal, relational).
-Media Consumption Habits: Changing media habits complicate linking violent media to aggression (e.g., violent cartoons in childhood, physical violence in films later).
-Retention Bias: Aggressive participants may be more likely to drop out, skewing results.

110
Q

10a: media influences on aggression

Strengths and limitations of meta analysis

A

+:

-Detection of Subtle Effects: Combines data from many small samples to identify consistent effects or lack of effect.
-Increased Generalisability: Broader range of populations, settings, and variations enhances robustness.
-Utilises Existing Data: Leverages already published studies, saving time and resources.

-:

-Quality of Included Studies: Dependent on the quality of studies included (e.g., definition of aggression).
-Publication Bias: Only detects published effects, and positive effects are more likely to be published (file-drawer problem).

111
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

Whats the General Aggression Model and what 3 components combine together to form it?

A

DeWall and Anderson’s (2011) General Aggression Model suggests that:
o Desensitisation
o Disinhibition
o cognitive priming
all act together - along with other influences - to explain the long-term effects of habitual use of violent media (e.g. gaming)

112
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

What’s desensitisation

A

Normal response to violence is sympathetic arousal. So, the usually aversive stimulus has reduced impact which means that on repeated exposure the degree of anxiety and arousal is reduced.

113
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

What do evolutionary psychologist believe the adaptive value of desensitisation is?

A

adaptive for our ancestors, helping them focus on immediate threats by reducing emotional reactions to frequent stimuli. Psychologists suggest this process helps individuals cope with repeated exposure to modern stimuli.

114
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

What is desensitisation when applied to aggression?

A

Repeated exposure to violence in media, such as TV shows or video games, can lead to desensitisation, where individuals become less responsive to aggression over time. This reduced emotional and physiological response, such as a lack of fear or arousal in the presence of aggression, may cause individuals to become more accepting of violence. As a result, they may be more likely to respond with aggression when presented with similar situations.

115
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

Evidence to support physiological Desensitisation:
(Carnagey)

A

Carnagey (2007)
Procedure:
- Participants played a violent or non-violent game for 20 minutes, then watched a10-minute film containing scenes of real-life violence
Findings:
- After watching the violent game, participants had lower heart rate and skin conductance response while viewing filmed real-life violence

116
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

Evidence to support psychological Desensitisation
(Weis and Earls) and how does it demonstrate a more realistic and economically valid effect on aggression

A

Procedure:
Participants watched the film Straw Dogs, which includes a graphic and prolonged rape scene, followed by a re-enactment of a rape trial.

Findings:
Male viewers showed increased acceptance of rape myths and sexual aggression, compared to a control group. They were less sympathetic towards the rape victim and less likely to find the defendant guilty. No effects were observed in female participants.

117
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

What is disinhibition

A

Most people are restrained from aggression due to societal norms that view it as harmful.
We learn through conditioning (CC/OC) and social learning (SLT) that aggression is antisocial.
However, exposure to violent media loosens these restraints, as violence is portrayed as normal and acceptable.
In video games, violence is often rewarded, and victim consequences are minimized, creating new social norms that influence viewers or players.

118
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

What is priming

A

Priming is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus

119
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

What is cognitive priming applied to aggression

A

The idea is that watching aggressive media such as computer games, gives us a ‘script’ about how violent situations may be enacted.
Huesmann says that these scripts are stored in implicit memory and so we are primed for aggression
This script is then triggered when we encounter cues in a situation that we perceive as aggressive.

120
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

What research evidence supports Huesmann’s theory of cognitive priming in relation to aggression

A

Fischer & Greitemeyer (2006):

Procedure:
Used as their aggressive stimulus song lyrics.
Male P’s listened to misogynistic or neutral lyrics and female P’s did equivalent.

Findings:
males in the misogynistic condition recalled more negative qualities in women and behaved more aggressively towards a female confederate - adding more hot pepper sauce (further research support for females repeating the same results towards men).
Male subjects only listened to two different songs with misogynous lyrics and showed a considerable increase in aggression toward women.

121
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

Strength of desensitisation explaination of aggression

A

P: research evidence demonstrates how reduced arousal is linked to increased aggression
Eg: Krahe et al. found that habitual viewers of violent media had lower physiological arousal (skin conductance) when viewing violence and delivered louder unprovoked white noise bursts to a confederate.
Ex: This supports desensitisation theory, suggesting repeated exposure to violent media reduces sensitivity and increases aggressive tendencies.
C: However, the lab setting of Krahne’s study may not reflect real-world aggression, where social norms and accountability play a role.
L: Despite limited ecological validity, the study increases the validity of the desensitisation theory by showing how reduced arousal lowers emotional barriers to aggression.

122
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

Limitation of desensitisation as an explaination of aggression

A

P: alternative explanations, such as the catharsis hypothesis, may sometimes provide a better explanation

Eg: Kestenbaum (1985) found that engaging in aggressive activities, like competitive sports or violent video games, often reduced aggression, supporting the catharsis hypothesis that safe outlets can release frustration.
Ex: This challenges the idea that violent stimuli always prime aggression, suggesting they may instead have a therapeutic function, reducing real-world aggression.
L: The findings underscore the value of considering multiple perspectives in aggression research, with applications in game design and therapeutic strategies to mitigate aggression.

123
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

A strength of the disinhibition explanation of aggression

A

P: research evidence
demonstrates how presenting violence as
justified can increase aggressive behavior.
Eg: Berkowitz & Alioto (1973) found that participants who watched a film portraying violence as justified gave more fake electric shocks to a confederate.
Ex: This suggests that justified media violence disinhibits aggression by making it seem socially acceptable, lowering internal restraints.
L: This supports the disinhibition model, showing how perceived social acceptability can remove constraints on aggression, increasing violent responses.

124
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

A strength of research on cognitive priming as an explanation of aggression

A

P: research findings indicate that the activation of scripts has practical therapeutic application.

Eg: Bushman and Anderson (2002) found that exposure to violent media activated aggressive cognitive scripts, leading to faster recognition of aggressive words and increased aggression in decision-making tasks.
Ex: These findings support cognitive-behavioral therapies that modify maladaptive scripts and promote prosocial behaviors through techniques like role-playing.
C: Generalisability is limited by individual and cultural differences; for instance, collectivist cultures may exhibit weaker script activation than individualistic ones.
L: The research provides a framework for therapeutic interventions but highlights the need for strategies tailored to individual contexts.

125
Q

10b. Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

A limitation of research on aggression and priming effects

A

P: the potential confounding role of complexity
Eg: Zendle et al. (2018) found that complex violent video games increased aggression, suggesting cognitive demands, not violent content, drive these effects.
Ex: This challenges earlier findings, highlighting how factors like cognitive load or frustration may confound studies attributing aggression to violent priming.
L: The study underscores the need for rigorous methodology in aggression research, controlling for variables like game complexity to clarify the validity of violent priming theories.

Pyschology (12 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions