Paper 3: Issues And Debates Flashcards

Question

Is the psychodynamic approach scientific

Answer 1

Not scientific Examines many concepts and theories which can’t be empirically tested. Relies on subjective interpretation

Answer 2

Free will Humans control their own environment and are capable of change

Answer 3

Mostly nurture Behaviours shaped by the environment as humans strive to achieve self-actualisation

Answer 4

Holism Focuses on understanding all aspects of human experience and interaction

Answer 5

Idiographic Focuses on the subjective human experience and makes no attempt to create general laws

Answer 6

Not scientific Rejects scientific methods and is unable to provide empirical evidence

Answer 7

Concept that conclusions can be applied to everyone, anywhere, regardless of time or culture Bias is a threat to universality as it can limit the generalisability to only a subset of the wider population Adopting a universal approach can result in research that is subjective and laden with value judgment

Answer 8

Milgram's (1963) obedience study used only male participants which limits the extent of its generalisability and its usefulness Bowlby's attachment theory (initially at least) assumed that the mother is the primary caregiver and his maternal deprivation hypothesis places the burden of dysfunctional attachment on women rather than a shared responsibility between both parents Men are equally important in terms of both healthy and unhealthy attachment behaviours

Answer 9

bias refers to any factor (eg: attitudes, beliefs) that interferes with the validity (i.e. the ‘truth’) of the research process Bias may lead to researchers forming conclusions which favour universality

Answer 10

The differential treatment or representation of men and women eg: favoured or discriminated, based on stereotypes rather than real difference

Answer 11

androcentrism means dominated by the males or male viewpoint. In the past most psychologists were male, and the theories they produced tended to represent a male view of the world. this can affect research as it provides a potentially misleading/inaccurate representation of how one sex (usually females) will respond in a given situation and can lead to alpha or beta bias

Answer 12

Milgram (1963), Asch (1951) and Zimbardo (1973) used all-male samples to draw conclusions about the nature of, respectively, destructive obedience, normative conformity and conformity to social roles This assumes that the findings from this research represent a general population when in fact 50% of the population was unrepresented in each study

Answer 13

Beta and alpha bias

Answer 14

Caused by attempting to avoid universality Alpha bias occurs when researchers over-emphasize the differences between males and females e.g. males are competitive; females are caring Alpha bias usually favours males and de-values females (possibly because most psychological research has been conducted by males) Differences between males and females allow for no flexibility when it comes to alpha bias

Answer 15

Freud's psychodynamic theory can imply that women are essentially inferior to men and argued girls don’t suffer the same Oedipal conflict as boys, they don’t identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their father, so develop weaker superego Schizophrenia is diagnosed more frequently in men which means that women may have to try harder to mask their symptoms or they may believe that there is nothing wrong with them i.e. they are just being 'hysterical'

Answer 16

Caused by trying to assume universality Beta bias occurs when researchers ignore or downplay differences between males and females e.g. the complete absence of females in a sample means that conclusions drawn are applied to both males and females alike, with no acknowledgement that females may respond differently to males within that given context

Answer 17

The fight-or-flight response is based on the male experience which can only explain male biological mechanisms. Taylor suggets that the higher presence of oxytocin reduces fight or flight in women and promotes the tend/befriend Ash, Milgram, Zimbardo: used all-male samples to draw conclusions about nature of, respectively, destructive obedience, normative conformity and conformity to social roles

Answer 18

1) Reflexivity Modern researchers are more aware of their own biases. They actively reflect on how their values, beliefs, or assumptions might affect research. Example: A researcher acknowledging their own gender might influence the way they interpret behaviour in participants. 2. Feminist Psychology A movement that aims to reduce gender bias and promote equality. It challenges androcentric views and promotes research that benefits women. Carol Gilligan, for example, criticised Kohlberg's male-based moral development theory and developed a more female-focused alternative. 3. Using Mixed-Sex Samples and Analysing Data Separately Ensuring studies include both males and females. Analysing male and female data separately to identify any genuine gender differences.

Answer 19

P: research in gender bias has led to contemporary psychology’s looking for ways to reduce it and increase value of women in society Eg: Cornwell fond that females showed advantages in learning, showing more attentive and organised, this emphasising the positive attributes of women Ex: acknowledging the differences some psychologists attempt to develop theories that emphasise the importance or value of women L: this type of research helps to overcome sexist attitudes and bias in research publications, therefore has application to society by supporting social policies that promote gender equality P: A strength in addressing gender bias in psychological research is the emphasis on implementing non-gender biased research criteria. Eg: Worrell developed several criteria for this, including using alternative methods to explore women’s personal lives, considering them within their natural settings, and collaborating with participants to examine personally relevant variables. Ex: These criteria help researchers avoid biases common in traditional approaches, which may not capture the lived experiences of women. For example, traditional lab settings often overlook the context of women's lives, leading to misinterpretation of data. L: real-world applications, as it promotes studying diverse samples, making findings more representative and applicable to a wider range of women, thereby reducing gender bias in psychological research. P: a limitation is that research which challenges gender bias is often not published Eg: Formanwicz analysed 1000 articles relating to gender bias and found that such research is funded less and is featured in less prestigious journals Ex: this still held true when gender bias was compared to ethnic bais, when other factors were controlled L: this suggests that gender bias may still not be taken as seriously as other types of bias in the research process, implying that the research has yet to have seen full application in society

Answer 20

Tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions. his can lead to distorted or invalid conclusions when studying or comparing behaviour across different cultures. western bias is most common in research

Answer 21

Henrick noted that ‘WERID’ people were most likely to be studied by psychologists Western Educated Industrialised Rich Democratic

Answer 22

the belief that one’s own culture or ethnic group is superior, and using it as the standard to judge other cultures. An example of cultural bias and if unchecked can produce an imposed etic. example: Ainsworth's 'Strange Situation' findings reflected a very White, Western, individualistic perspective e.g. normal for securely attached children to show some separation anxiety abnormal (insecure resistant) to show too much separation anxiety abnormal (insecure avoidant) to show independence from the caregiver

Answer 23

the idea that cultures can only be understood from within that culture Researchers can achieve this by taking an emic approach example: Deviation from social norms: This definition of abnormality depends on culturally specific norms. What is considered "abnormal" in one culture may be seen as normal in another. For example, hearing voices (auditory hallucinations) is considered a symptom of schizophrenia in Western cultures, but in some non-Western or spiritual cultures, it might be interpreted as a sign of a spiritual connection or religious experience.

Answer 24

Outside Looks at behaviour from outside a culture and identifies behaviours that’s are universal

Answer 25

Functions from inside a culture, and identifies behaviours that are specific to the culture Inside

Answer 26

when a researcher studies behaviour in one culture and then assumes that the findings can be applied to other cultures, ignoring cultural differences. Ainsworh and Bell studied behaviours inside a single culture (America) and assumed the ideal attachemnt type could be applied universally

Answer 27

overemphasising the differences between cultures, leading to the belief that one culture is superior or fundamentally different from another, can contribute to stereotyping and may lead to cultural misinterpretations in psychological research. eg: Assuming that collectivist cultures (like Japan) are completely different in terms of conformity or obedience compared to individualist cultures (like the U.S.), without acknowledging similarities or variability within each culture.

Answer 28

minimising or ignoring cultural differences, often by assuming that findings from one culture can be applied universally.

Answer 29

The idea that conclusions can be applied to everyone body everywhere regardless of time or culture

Answer 30

P: A strength of addressing cultural bias in psychological research is the distinction between universal behaviors and culture-specific ones. Eg: Ekman’s cross-cultural studies showed that basic facial expressions like anger, guilt, and disgust are universally recognized, indicating they are biologically predetermined. Ex: In attachment research, Tronick et al.'s 'Still Face' experiment found universal infant-caregiver interactions, with infants across cultures reacting similarly to the caregiver’s withdrawal. C: While attachment behaviors are universal, caregiving aspects like independence versus interdependence vary across cultures. Focusing too much on universality can lead to ethnocentric bias, as shown by Takahashi’s finding that the Strange Situation misinterprets behaviors in Japanese infants. L: Identifying universal behaviors is important, but considering cultural contexts is equally crucial. P: A limitation of classic psychological studies is cultural bias, limiting generalisability. Eg: Smith and Bond found that 66% of studies in a European social psychology textbook were American, with only 2% from other regions. Asch’s and Milgram’s studies, conducted with white, middle-class American participants, don’t reflect other cultures. Ex: Replications in collectivist cultures showed variations—Asch-type studies in Asia found much higher conformity rates than in the US. C: The distinction between individualist and collectivist cultures may be less significant today due to global media and exchange. Takano and Osaka found no significant cultural differences in 14 out of 15 studies. L: A more nuanced understanding of cultural influences is needed, acknowledging culture’s evolving nature to improve cross-cultural research validity. P: A limitation in psychological research is the perpetuation of ethnic stereotyping, with social and ethical consequences. Eg: Gould analyzed the first American intelligence tests, showing they promoted eugenic policies based on the false belief that intelligence varied across ethnic groups. Ex: During WW1, IQ tests given to 1.75 million recruits had cultural biases that disadvantaged non-Western participants, resulting in misinterpretations of lower scores as genetic inferiority, reinforcing racism. L: This highlights the need for culturally sensitive research practices to avoid perpetuating stereotypes and discrimination.

Answer 31

The idea that we can play an active role and have a choice in how we behave. The assumption is that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self-determined so have agency over our actions

Answer 32

The view that free will is an illusion, and that our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control so our behaviour is viewed as predictable.

Answer 33

The view that forces outside of our control (eg: biology or past experience) shape all our behaviour, so there can be no free will Eg: behaviourism suggests all behaviour is learnt. Biological approach sees behaviour as the product of our genes and neurochemistry

Answer 34

The view that behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make-up. But omly to a certain extent and there’s an element of free will in behaviour. Eg: cognitive approach suggests individuals can reason and makedecisioms within the limits of their cognitive system

Answer 35

Idea that all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes For example, the MAOA gene as a candidate gene for aggression

Answer 36

The view that our behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual. Therefore behaviour is caused by previous experiments learned through classical and operant conditioning. Eg: phobias are learned through conditioning

Answer 37

Claims behaviour is due to childhood experiences and innate drives (Id, ego and superego) For example Freuds psychosexual stages of development, each characterised by conflict which if unresolved, leads to fixation in adulthood

Answer 38

P: A strength of the free will argument is its face validity; everyday experience suggests we exercise free will through the choices we make daily. Eg: Roberts found that adolescents who believed their lives were controlled by external factors (fatalism) were more likely to develop depression. Ex: This suggests that having an internal locus of control, believing we influence our lives, is associated with better mental health. L: This implies that even if free will is an illusion, the perception of it can positively impact mental well-being. P: A limitation of the free will argument comes from neurological evidence supporting determinism. Eg: Libet found that brain activity in motor areas occurred before participants consciously decided to move their finger, suggesting that what we perceive as a conscious decision may actually be a pre-determined action, with consciousness acting as a "read out." Ex: Further studies show that brain activity in the prefrontal cortex occurs up to 10 seconds before conscious decision-making, implying that actions may be initiated unconsciously. This supports the idea that free will could be an illusion. C: Some argue that conscious awareness may still play a role in vetoing pre-initiated actions, known as "free won't." L: This suggests a nuanced relationship between determinism and free will, where conscious choice may still influence actions within a deterministic framework. P: A limitation of determinism is that it oversimplifies human behavior, failing to account for its complexity. Eg: Aggression cannot be solely explained by biological factors like adrenaline; cognitive factors and emotions play a crucial role and are often more influential. Ex: Human behavior is less rigid than that of non-human animals, as it's influenced by cognitive processes that can override biological impulses. L: This weakens the validity of determinism when applied to human behavior, as it overlooks the complexity of cognitive, emotional, and social factors that shape actions.

Answer 39

Nature focuses on innate, inherited factors like genes and biology, arguing that behaviour, personality, intelligence, and mental disorders are determined by heredity rather than the environment.

Answer 40

Heredity: the process by which traits are passed from parents to offspring. Can be qualified (eg hereditary coefficient of intelligence is 0.5) – Plomin et al.) so influences of nature and nurture are equal

Answer 41

Nurture focuses on environmental influences like upbringing, experience, and culture, arguing that behaviour, personality, and intelligence are shaped by learning rather than genetics.

Answer 42

Behaviourist approach

Answer 43

The interactionist approach argues that behaviour is a product of both genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) influences working together. Diathesis stress model: A person may have a genetic vulnerability (diathesis) but will only develop the disorder if triggered by environmental stress (e.g. trauma, drug use).

Answer 44

Epigenetics is the change in gene activity (switching genes on/off) caused by environmental factors (e.g., diet, stress, smoking) without altering DNA. These changes can affect behaviour and may be passed to future generations, linking environment and genetics.

Answer 45

1) Schizophrenia concordance rates (Gottesman, 1991): MZ twins have a 48% concordance rate compared to 17% for DZ twins, showing a strong genetic influence. However, since MZ concordance is less than 100%, environmental factors also contribute to the disorder’s development. 2) Bandura's Social Learning Theory: behaviour is acquired directly through operant and classical conditioning and indirectly through vicarious reinforcement. Bandura argued behaviour is learned both environmentally (through imitation and reinforcement) and biologically (e.g., innate urges like aggression influence how behaviour is expressed).

Answer 46

Level of similarity between 2 people usually siblings, as measured by a correlation coefficient (between 1 and 0)

Answer 47

Nurture: influence of experience/environment * Empiricists (eg Locke): the mind is a blank slate at birth (tabula rasa), later shaped by experience. * Lerner identified different ‘levels’ of environment: from pre-natal experiences (eg mother’s physiological and psychological state during pregnancy) and post-natal experiences (socio-historical context the child grew up in)

Answer 48

The concordance gives an estimate about whether the trait is heritable: the proportion of differnce between individuals In a population due to a genetic variation: - IQ heritability is approx 0.5 approx (Plomin, 1994): half of a person’s IQ is determined by genetic factors, and half by environmental factors.

Answer 49

Diathesis-Stress Model: P: A strength of the interactionist approach is the Diathesis-Stress Model, which shows the interplay between nature and nurture in psychological disorders. E: Tienari (2004) studied 145 Finnish adoptees with a genetic risk for schizophrenia, comparing them with 158 without this risk. After 12 years, 14 adoptees developed schizophrenia, 11 from the high-risk group. Those with genetic predisposition raised in high-stress environments were more likely to develop the disorder, while those raised in supportive environments were less likely. E: This shows that genetic vulnerability alone doesn't determine schizophrenia development; environmental stressors trigger genetic risks. Children raised in nurturing environments had a lower risk of developing schizophrenia, emphasizing the protective effect of supportive surroundings. L: Thus, the Diathesis-Stress Model supports the interactionist approach, showing both genetic and environmental factors are crucial in understanding psychological disorders. Real-world Application to Mental Health: P: A strength of the interactionist approach is its real-world application, particularly in understanding and managing mental health disorders like OCD. E: Nedstat et al. (2010) found that the heritability rate of OCD is 0.76, indicating a significant genetic component. However, high heritability does not guarantee development of the disorder. E: This suggests that even with a genetic predisposition, OCD development can be influenced by environmental factors like stress management, guiding genetic L: validity P: A limitation of the nature-nurture debate is the difficulty in separating the influences of nature and nurture. E: Maguire et al. (2000) found that London taxi drivers had a larger hippocampus, associated with spatial memory, compared to control participants. This change was correlated with the time spent as a taxi driver, indicating the influence of environmental factors (nurture). However, this adaptation is also linked to the brain's innate capacity for neuroplasticity, a genetically determined trait (nature). E: This highlights the challenge in attributing the brain's changes to either nature or nurture, as both are involved in the process. The difficulty is also evident in twin studies, where higher concordance rates between identical twins may reflect both genetic similarities (nature) and shared environments (nurture). L: This complex interplay between nature and nurture undermines the validity of trying to attribute behavior solely to one factor, showing that behavior cannot be simply reduced to determinism or free will.

Answer 50

From least to most reductionist Social cultural Psychological/ cognitive Behavioural Physiological Neurochemical

Answer 51

Social and cultural level: most holistic level, involving social interactions, cultural norms, and societal influences. Psychological level: includes cognitive processes, emotions, and learned behaviors. For instance, cognitive explanations for depression might focus on negative thinking patterns, while behavioral explanations might consider how reinforcement history contributes to depressive symptoms. Biological level: most reductionist level of explanation and includes genetic, neurochemical, and physiological processes. reduces complex behaviors to their simplest biological components.

Answer 52

Explanations vary from those at a lower or fundamental level focusing on basic components or units to those at a higher more holistic multivariable levels

Answer 53

The idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience and not as separate parts

Answer 54

The belief that human behavior is best understood by studying the smaller constituent parts; use the principle of parsimony; explanations via the simplest, lowest level principles.

Answer 55

There’s no continuum between holism and reductionism; as soon as you start to break down a holistic approach, it isn’t really holistic anymore

Answer 56

Focuses on the individuals experience, which can’t be reduced eg: biological units Emphasises the idea that human behavior should be viewed as a whole, rather than as a sum of its parts Argues that to truly understand an individuals behavior, thoughts and emotions, one mist consider all aspects of their experience, including their environment, relationships and personal goals Compatible with the humanistic approach Uses qualitative measures to investigate the self, focusing on overarching themes, rather than individual component behaviors. Contrasts with reductionist approaches, which attempt to break down behavior into smaller component for analysis

Answer 57

Humanistic psychology argues humans react to stimuli as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimuli response link Human sims tries to understand influences behavior by looking at where they are on Maslows Heirarchy of needs and their realisation of self actualisation Rogers person-centred therapy is related to this approach, focussing on the importance of the patients subjective experience, with the therapist providing unconditional positive regard to help the patient understand their subjective feelings and experiences as a whole

Answer 58

Social and cultural explainatioms: atypical behavior eg: repetitive hand washing Psychological: individual experiences of obsessive thoughts Physical: sequence of movements in hand washing Environmental: learned experiences through conditioning Physiological: abnormal functioning of fromtal lobes responsible for planning Neurochemical: under-production of serotonin so use SSRI’s as treatments

Answer 59

All behaviour is acquired through stimulus response interactions (behaviourism) Eg: - Learning theory of attachemnt - Phobias (eg: little Albert) obtained and maintained using classical and operant conditions

Answer 60

All behaviour is explained through neurochemical, physiological, evolutionary or genetic mechanisms Eg: - Antipsychotic drugs to treat dopamine deficits in schizophrenia - Doressiom can be explained as a result of serotonin in the synaptic gaps between neurons and treated using SSRI’s

Answer 61

P: A strength of reductionism is its parsimony, allowing complex behaviors to be understood and studied systematically. E: Experimental psychology often reduces complex behaviors into isolated variables, such as breaking down cognitive processes like memory into components like the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. E: This approach helps researchers study specific factors in a controlled manner, establishing causal relationships that would be difficult to interpret if all influencing factors were studied at once. L: This increase in validity gives psychology credibility, placing it on equal terms with natural sciences and potentially leading to effective treatments for mental health disorders by focusing on singular causal factors. P: A strength of the reductionist approach is its practical application in the development of drug therapies for mental health. E: By isolating biological factors like neurotransmitter imbalances, researchers have developed selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) to alleviate symptoms of depression by targeting serotonin deficiency. E: While this has led to effective treatments, it oversimplifies complex disorders by neglecting broader psychological and social factors, limiting its explanatory power. L: The reductionist approach has improved understanding and treatment of mental health, but this comes at the cost of overlooking the broader context of a patient's life experience. P: A limitation of reductionism is that biological reductionism may lead to errors in understanding, as it overlooks the complexity of human behavior, reducing validity. E: For instance, treating ADHD solely with drugs like Ritalin, based on the belief that it’s just a neurochemical imbalance, addresses only the symptoms and not the underlying causes of the condition. E: While Ritalin may reduce symptoms, the true causes of ADHD remain unaddressed, and the variable success rates of drug therapy suggest that a purely biological understanding is insufficient. L: A holistic approach, considering the broader context and underlying causes of disorders, may lead to more effective treatments that tackle both symptoms and root causes.

Answer 62

P: A strength of holism is that it considers the wider context surrounding an individual, highlighting social behaviors that emerge only within group settings. E: For example, the Stanford Prison experiment demonstrated that conformity to social roles and deindividuation cannot be understood by examining individuals alone; it was the group interactions that played a key role. E: The interaction between participants in the prison setting revealed how individuals conformed to their social roles due to the power of the group context. L: This demonstrates that a holistic approach is crucial for understanding the complexities of behavior, with real-world applications in areas such as social psychology and group dynamics. P: A limitation of the holistic approach is that it often adopts unscientific methods, leading to a lack of empirical evidence. E: For example, the humanistic approach doesn't rely on empirical methods to study cause-and-effect behavior; it avoids isolating variables, instead focusing on the whole person using qualitative methods like self-reports. E: While this allows for a deep understanding of the individual, it lacks the ability to establish clear causal relationships and make predictions, as reductionism does. L: Therefore, the holistic approach may reduce the credibility of psychology as a science, making it harder to understand human behavior due to its methodological limitations, though some argue that not all aspects of human psychology can be studied scientifically.

Answer 63

It focusses on the individual and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature.

Answer 64

It’s concerned with establishing general laws, based on the study of large groups of people

Answer 65

Aims: -Focuses on the detail about the individual - Generalisations could be made but this isn’t the focus ,which is on the individual -subjective and rich human experience is used as a way of explaining behavior ,without the aim of developing general principles and unifying laws Method: -low number of ppts in research, often case studies, not groups -qualititve research (eg: first hand personal accounts of patients) -use of in depth unstructured interviews

Answer 66

Most assossiated with humanistic and psychodynamic approaches -Maslow/Rogers: -studied process of self-development, based on in depth therapeutic interviews -focus on the process of unconditioned positive regard -takes a holistic approach to research, focusing on the experience of the individual -Freud: -pyschodynamic approach: case studies and in-depth interviews -close observations of ‘Little Hans’ to explain phobias -later formed basis of Oedipus and Electra complexes (generalisation)

Answer 67

Aims: -to quantify human behavior to establish generalisations, to create general ‘laws’ of behavior that provide unifying people and control behaviour - Radford & Kirby suggested the aim is to 1) classify people into groups 2) establish principles of behavior that can be applied to people in general 3) establish dimensions along which people can be placed, compared, measured Method: -use of statistical techniques and quantitive research. Closely related to the specific approach: hypothesis, sample recruitment & testing; lab experiments, controlled observations, statistical significance testing -tools may include structured interviews or psychological tests

Answer 68

Most associated with biological, cognitive and behaviourist approaches -Skinner (behaviourist): Behaviourists explain all behaviour in terms of simple stimulus-response links, which have been learned through experience Studied animals using laboratory experiments using string control of extraneous and confounding variables to allow a cause and effect relationship to be establish and ascertain general laws of learning -Tulving (cognitive/biological) makes use of brain scans to make inferences about localisation of brain function. For example, the use of PET scans by Tulving Helped to establish that semantic memories were recalled from the left prefrontal cortex, whilst episodic memories were recalled from the right prefrontal cortex Sperry: Split-brain research, using repeated testing to inform brain lateralisation

Answer 69

- Objectivity seen as not possible - Individual experience of personal context

Answer 70

- Objectivity is central to the approach - Uses standardised tests - Aims to establish replication - Aims to exclude bias

Answer 71

P: A strength of the nomothetic approach is that it follows a scientific method, utilizing experimental (quantitative) techniques to allow for replication and examination of reliability. E: For example, cognitive psychologists model working memory, with its components reliably measured through operationalized categories, which increases internal validity. E: The efforts to reduce bias and objectively collect data enhance the scientific credibility of the findings. The creation of norms, such as an average IQ score of 100, provides a useful baseline for comparing intellectual abilities and mental disorders. L: This scientific approach has helped psychology establish itself as a valid scientific discipline and advanced the understanding of human behaviour.

Answer 72

P: A limitation of the nomothetic approach is that while it can predict group behavior, it cannot predict individual behavior due to its focus on quantitative data and statistical analysis. E: For example, Milgram's research found that 65% of participants obeyed an authority figure and inflicted a 450-volt shock, but it did not explain why each person obeyed, as different circumstances may have influenced each individual's behavior. E: Idiographic researchers would argue that Milgram's findings apply only to groups and not individuals, providing a superficial understanding of human behavior. L: This limits the validity of the nomothetic approach, as group findings are not always applicable to individuals, and understanding individuals is key to making accurate predictions about behavior, as Allport (1937) argued.

Answer 73

P: A strength of the idiographic approach in using the case study method is its ability to evaluate psychological theories. E: For example, the case study of HM challenged the Multi-Store Model of Memory, showing that long-term memory comprises more than one type. HM could form new procedural memories but not episodic or semantic memories, which contradicted the model's claim of a single, unitary LTM store. E: This led to Tulving's development of the theory of three distinct types of LTM stores. L: The idiographic approach adds validity to psychological theories, as case studies can generate further research, contributing to the development of new theories and improving our understanding of human behavior. P: A limitation of the idiographic approach is that it is less scientific than the nomothetic approach. E: For example, its emphasis on in-depth data collection and difficulty in making generalizations contradicts the goal of science to explain most variations in the fewest terms, enabling prediction and control. E: Research that does not address these goals can be seen as scientifically pointless, limiting the idiographic approach's ability to produce general laws or predictions about human behavior. L: As a result, the idiographic approach is less practical for diagnosing and treating psychological disorders, suggesting that combining both approaches may strengthen research findings.

Answer 74

Milrams shock experiment Stanford prisiomers experiment Watson’s Little Albert The Monster study: 20 orphans, one group told were given positive feedback on their stutter, other group received negitive feedback. Nat became withdrawn, anxious.

Answer 75

- The potential for consequences to individuals - Potential for wider groups eg: findings effect the target population - Consequences for social policy Eg: funding

Answer 76

All psychological research has potential ethical considerations, but especially socially-sensitive research

Answer 77

Defined by Sieber and Stanley. Studies with the potential consequences either directly for ppts in research or for the class of individuals represented by the research

Answer 78

respect -competence -responsibility -integrity

Answer 79

privacy -confidentiality -valid methodology -deception - Informed consent -Equitable treatment - Scientific freedom -Ownership of data -Values and the risk/benefit ratio.

Answer 80

1) Awareness of potential consequences: researchers aware of this with their work for ppts, groups or populations, that the research concerns and should consider how the findings might be misused or misinterpreted in ways that can harm specific groups 2) Collaboration with targeted groups: researchers should work closely with group members who may be affected by this research to ensure research is respectful and sensitive to the needs of these groups 3) Careful framing of research questions: the way research questions are framed can influence interpretation and impact of research, they recommend researchers carefully consider how questions are posed to avoid reinforcing stereotypes or contribute to stigma 4) Ethical reflexivity: researchers could continually reflect on the ethical considerations of their work. So follow ethical guidelines ans think critically about the broader social impact of the research 5) Dissemination of findings: researchers should consider how they disseminate their findings, particularly in terms of how their findings might be used by others, they should strive to ensure that the dissemination doesn’t contribute to harm, misinterpretation or misuse of the research

Answer 81

P: A key ethical issue in psychology is the impact of socially sensitive research — studies that may have consequences for the participants or wider society. E: For example, Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation led to public policies that discouraged mothers from working, implying that separation from the mother damages emotional development. E: Although based on research, this had wide social and political implications that affected women’s choices and roles in society. L: This shows that psychological findings can unintentionally reinforce stereotypes or social norms, so researchers must consider the wider ethical implications of their work. P: A major ethical debate is whether the benefits of research outweigh its ethical costs. E: Milgram’s obedience study is a classic example — participants were subjected to extreme stress, deception, and lack of informed consent. E: However, the findings had profound implications for understanding obedience to authority, especially after WWII. L: This raises a dilemma: valuable insights can come at a cost, and ethics committees must carefully balance participant welfare with potential societal benefit. P: Psychology has responded to ethical concerns by establishing clear ethical guidelines to protect participants. E: The BPS Code of Ethics includes principles like informed consent, protection from harm, and the right to withdraw. E: Modern studies must gain approval from an ethics committee, which assesses whether ethical risks are justified by the research’s value. L: This means current research is more ethically sound, improving public trust in psychology and the credibility of findings.

Paper 3: Issues And Debates Flashcards

(106 cards)