Paper 3: Issues And Debates Flashcards
What side does the biological approach take in the free will vs determinism debate
Biological determinism
behaviour is controlled by internal biological factors eg: genes, hormones and neurotransmitters
What side does the biological approach take in the Nature vs nurture debate
Nature
behaviour is the result of innate biological factors eg: Genes, hormones, neurotransmitters
What side does the biological approach take in the Reductionism v holism debate
Biological reductionism
behaviour is broken down into biological structures/processes
What side does the biological approach take in the Ideographic vs nomothetic debate
Nomothetic
creates universal laws, as humans share similar physiologies
Is the biological approach scientific?
Yes, the biological approach promotes scientific methods of investigation e.g. brain imaging
What side does the behaviourist approach take in the free will vs determinism debate
Environmental determinism
behaviour is controlled by stimulus-response conditioning
What side does the behaviourist approach take in the nature vs nurture debate
Nurture
humans and born as a tabula rasa and behaviour is learned through operant and classical conditioning through the environmental stimulus-response link
What side does the behaviourist approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate
Environmental reductionism
Behaviour is broken down into a simple stimulus-response link
What side does the behaviourist approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate
Nomothetic
Creates universal laws as behaviour is the result of a stimulus response link
Is the behaviourist approach scientific
Yes, behaviourist approach utilises scientific methods of investigation e.g. lab experiments and animal research
What side does the social learning theory approach take in the free will vs determinism debate
Soft determinism
Behaviour is controlled by environmental forces however, humans have a personal responsibility and free choice
What side does the social learning theory approach take in the nature vs nurture debate
Nurture
Behaviour is learnt from observation, imitation and modelling and vicarious reinforcement
What side does the social learning theory approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate
Partially reductionist
Shares elements of the behaviourist and cognitive approaches
What side does the social learning theory approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate
Nomothetic
attempts to establish general laws of behaviour e.g. vicarious reinforcement
Is the social learning theory scientific?
Mostly scientific
Utilises scientific methods but also takes into account mediational process
What side does the cognitive approach take in the free will vs determinism debate?
Soft determinism
Behaviour is controlled by mediational processes that humans can choose what info they attend to
What side does the cognitive approach take in the nature vs nurture debate?
Both
Behaviour is the product of info processing and modified by experience
What side does the cognitive approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate?
Experimental reductionism
Behaviours investigated in terms of isolated variables (eg: capacity of STM)
What side does the cognitive approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate?
Both,
Attempts to establish general laws of cognitive processing but utilises an idiographic approach with case studies
Is the cognitive approach scientific?
Mostly scientific
Utilises scientific methods of investigation but researchers are unable to directly observe cognitive processes
What side does the psychodynamic approach take in the free will vs determinism debate?
Psychic determinism
Behaviours determined by unconscious drives and early childhood experiences
What side does the pyschodynamic approach take in the nature vs nurture debate?
Mostly nature
Behaviours the product of innate drives, but shaped by early childhood experiences
What side does the pyschodynamic approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate?
Both,
Behaviours reduced to innate drives, while taking into account the multiple aspects of human behaviour
What side does the pyschodynamic approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate?
Both
Attempts to establish general laws in relation to innate drives, while considering unique experiences during childhood
Is the psychodynamic approach scientific
Not scientific
Examines many concepts and theories which can’t be empirically tested. Relies on subjective interpretation
What side does the humanistic approach take in the free will vs determinism debate?
Free will
Humans control their own environment and are capable of change
What side does the humanistic approach take in the nature vs nurture debate?
Mostly nurture
Behaviours shaped by the environment as humans strive to achieve self-actualisation
What side does the humanistic approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate?
Holism
Focuses on understanding all aspects of human experience and interaction
What side does the humanistic approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate?
Idiographic
Focuses on the subjective human experience and makes no attempt to create general laws
Is the humanistic approach scientific
Not scientific
Rejects scientific methods and is unable to provide empirical evidence
1: Gender
What does universality mean?
Concept that conclusions can be applied to everyone, anywhere, regardless of time or culture
Bias is a threat to universality as it can limit the generalisability to only a subset of the wider population
Adopting a universal approach can result in research that is subjective and laden with value judgment
1: Gender
Give 2 examples of universality
Milgram’s (1963) obedience study used only male participants which limits the extent of its generalisability and its usefulness
Bowlby’s attachment theory (initially at least) assumed that the mother is the primary caregiver and his maternal deprivation hypothesis places the burden of dysfunctional attachment on women rather than a shared responsibility between both parents
Men are equally important in terms of both healthy and unhealthy attachment behaviours
1: Gender
What does bias mean?
bias refers to any factor (eg: attitudes, beliefs) that interferes with the validity (i.e. the ‘truth’) of the research process
Bias may lead to researchers forming conclusions which favour universality
1: Gender
What is gender bias?
The differential treatment or representation of men and women eg: favoured or discriminated, based on stereotypes rather than real difference
1: Gender
What is androcentrism?
androcentrism means dominated by the males or male viewpoint.
In the past most psychologists were male, and the theories they produced tended to represent a male view of the world.
this can affect research as it provides a potentially misleading/inaccurate representation of how one sex (usually females) will respond in a given situation and can lead to alpha or beta bias
1: Gender
Give examples of classic studies in psychology, and explain how they may show an androcentric bias
Milgram (1963), Asch (1951) and Zimbardo (1973) used all-male samples to draw conclusions about the nature of, respectively, destructive obedience, normative conformity and conformity to social roles
This assumes that the findings from this research represent a general population when in fact 50% of the population was unrepresented in each study
1: Gender
What biases can androcentrism lead to?
Beta and alpha bias
1: Gender
What is a consequence of alpha bias?
Caused by attempting to avoid universality
Alpha bias occurs when researchers over-emphasize the differences between males and females e.g.
males are competitive; females are caring
Alpha bias usually favours males and de-values females (possibly because most psychological research has been conducted by males)
Differences between males and females allow for no flexibility when it comes to alpha bias
1: Gender
Give 2 examples of 2 studies which demonstrate alpha bias
Freud’s psychodynamic theory can imply that women are essentially inferior to men and argued girls don’t suffer the same Oedipal conflict as boys, they don’t identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their father, so develop weaker superego
Schizophrenia is diagnosed more frequently in men which means that women may have to try harder to mask their symptoms or they may believe that there is nothing wrong with them i.e. they are just being ‘hysterical’
1: Gender
What is beta bias?
Caused by trying to assume universality
Beta bias occurs when researchers ignore or downplay differences between males and females e.g. the complete absence of females in a sample means that conclusions drawn are applied to both males and females alike, with no acknowledgement that females may respond differently to males within that given context
1: Gender
Give examples of beta bias
The fight-or-flight response is based on the male experience which can only explain male biological mechanisms. Taylor suggets that the higher presence of oxytocin reduces fight or flight in women and promotes the tend/befriend
Ash, Milgram, Zimbardo: used all-male samples to draw conclusions about nature of, respectively, destructive obedience, normative conformity and conformity to social roles
1: Gender
How do animal studies demonstrate beta bias?
1: Gender
How can gender bias be overcome?
1: Gender
2 advantages of the focus on gender bias
P: research in gender bias has led to contemporary psychology’s looking for ways to reduce it and increase value of women in society
Eg: Cornwell fond that females showed advantages in learning, showing more attentive and organised, this emphasising the positive attributes of women
Ex: therefore by acknowledging the differences some psychologists attempt to develop theories that emphasise the importance or value of women
L: as a result this type of research helps to overcome sexist attitudes and bias in research publications, therefore has application to society in the form of supporting social policies that promote gender equality
P: A strength in addressing gender bias in psychological research is the emphasis on implementing non-gender biased research criteria.
Eg: Worrell developed several criteria for this, including using alternative methods to explore women’s personal lives, considering them within their natural settings, and collaborating with participants to examine personally relevant variables.
Ex: These criteria help researchers avoid biases common in traditional approaches, which may not capture the lived experiences of women. For example, traditional lab settings often overlook the context of women’s lives, leading to misinterpretation of data.
L: This approach has real-world applications, as it promotes studying diverse samples, making findings more representative and applicable to a wider range of women, thereby reducing gender bias in psychological research.
1: Gender
2 limitations of gender bias research
Sexist attitudes produce gender biased research
P: a limitation in the research process is the pro essence of sexism which has led to androcentrism
Eg: Murphy argues that research is more likely to be conducted by males, as there is a lack of women appointed at senior research positions in universities
Ex: This may disadvantage females. For example a male researcher may expect female ppts to be irrational and unable to complete complex tasks (Nicolson)
L: this has application to society as it means that the institution pal structures and methods of psychology may produce findings which are gender biased
Under publishing of gender confronting research
P: a limitation is that research which challenges gender bias is often not published
Eg: Formanwicz analysed 1000 articles relating to gender bias and found that such research is funded less and is featured in less prestigious journals
Ex: this still held true when gender bias was compared to ethnic bais, when other factors were controlled
L: this suggests that gender bias may still not be taken as seriously as other types of bias in the research process, implying that the research has yet to have seen full application in society
2: Culture
What is the definition of ‘cultural bias’?
Tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions
Most of psychological research tends to suffer from a western bias and it’s assumed the findings can be applied to other cultures
Adopting a universal bias can involve culture bias
The overwhelming majority of psychology research has investigated samples of participants from the USA or other wealthy Western individualistic countries
This presents a skewed and unrepresentative view of human behaviour
2: culture
What are WEIRD people?
Henrick noted that ‘WERID’ people were most likely to be studied by psychologists
Western
Educated
Industrialised
Rich
Democratic
2: culture
What is ethnocentrism?
Seeing the world only from one own cultural perspective and believing that this one perspective is both normal and correct. An example of cultural bias and if unchecked can produce an imposed etic.
2: culture
Give an example of ethnocentrism
Ainsworth’s ‘Strange Situation’ study, the findings reflected a very White, Western, individualistic perspective e.g.
it is normal for securely attached children to show some separation anxiety
it is abnormal (insecure attachment type resistant) to show too much separation anxiety
it is abnormal (insecure attachment type avoidant) to show independence from the caregiver
2: culture
What is cultural relativism?
Cultural relativism is the idea that cultures can only be understood from within that culture
Researchers can achieve this by taking an emic approach
2: culture
Give an example of cultural relativism
Meaning of intelligence is different in every culture
Sternberg pointed out that coordination skills that may e essential to life in a pre literate society may be mostly irrelevant to intelligent behaviour for most people in a literate and more developed society
So the only way to understand intelligence is to take the cultural context into account
2: culture
Who proposed the etic v emic approach and imposed etic?
Berry
2: culture
What is the ‘etic’ approach?
Outside
Looks at behaviour from outside a culture and identifies behaviours that’s are universal
2: culture
What is the ‘emic’ approach?
Functions from inside a culture, and identifies behaviours that are specific to the culture
Inside
2: culture
What does ‘imposed etic’ mean?
Ainsworh and Bell studied behaviours inside a single culture (America) and assumed the ideal attachemnt type could be applied universally
2: culture
What does alpha bias mean with regard to culture?
Occurs when a theory assumes that cultural forums are profoundly different
2: culture
What is beta bias with regard to culture?
Occurs when real cultural differences are ignored or minimised, and all people are assumed to be the same , resulting in universal research designs and conclusions
2: culture
What is universality with regard to culture?
The idea that conclusions drawn in psychological can be applied to everyone body everywhere regardless of time or culture
2: culture
1 strength of research into culture
P: A strength of addressing cultural bias in psychological research is the distinction between universal behaviors and culture-specific ones.
Eg: Ekman’s cross-cultural studies showed that basic facial expressions like anger, guilt, and disgust are universally recognized, indicating they are biologically predetermined.
Ex: In attachment research, Tronick et al.’s ‘Still Face’ experiment found universal infant-caregiver interactions, with infants across cultures reacting similarly to the caregiver’s withdrawal.
C: While attachment behaviors are universal, caregiving aspects like independence versus interdependence vary across cultures. Focusing too much on universality can lead to ethnocentric bias, as shown by Takahashi’s finding that the Strange Situation misinterprets behaviors in Japanese infants.
L: Identifying universal behaviors is important, but considering cultural contexts is equally crucial.
2: culture
2 limitations of research into culture
P: A limitation of classic psychological studies is cultural bias, limiting generalisability.
Eg: Smith and Bond found that 66% of studies in a European social psychology textbook were American, with only 2% from other regions. Asch’s and Milgram’s studies, conducted with white, middle-class American participants, don’t reflect other cultures.
Ex: Replications in collectivist cultures showed variations—Asch-type studies in Asia found much higher conformity rates than in the US.
C: The distinction between individualist and collectivist cultures may be less significant today due to global media and exchange. Takano and Osaka found no significant cultural differences in 14 out of 15 studies.
L: A more nuanced understanding of cultural influences is needed, acknowledging culture’s evolving nature to improve cross-cultural research validity.
P: A limitation in psychological research is the perpetuation of ethnic stereotyping, with social and ethical consequences.
Eg: Gould analyzed the first American intelligence tests, showing they promoted eugenic policies based on the false belief that intelligence varied across ethnic groups.
Ex: During WW1, IQ tests given to 1.75 million recruits had cultural biases that disadvantaged non-Western participants, resulting in misinterpretations of lower scores as genetic inferiority, reinforcing racism.
L: This highlights the need for culturally sensitive research practices to avoid perpetuating stereotypes and discrimination.
3: free will and determinism
What is free will?
The idea that we can play an active role and have a choice in how we behave. The assumption is that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self-determined so have agency over our actions
3: free will and determinism
What is determinism?
The view that free will is an illusion, and that our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control so our behaviour is viewed as predictable.
3: free will and determinism
What is hard determinism?
The view that forces outside of our control (eg: biology or past experience) shape all our behaviour, so there can be no free will
Eg: behaviourism suggests all behaviour is learnt. Biological approach sees behaviour as the product of our genes and neurochemistry
3: free will and determinism
What is soft determinism?
The view that behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make-up. But omly to a certain extent and there’s an element of free will in behaviour.
Eg: cognitive approach suggests individuals can reason and makedecisioms within the limits of their cognitive system
3: free will and determinism
What is biological determinism?
Idea that all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes
For example, the MAOA gene as a candidate gene for aggression
3: free will and determinism
What is environmental determinism?
The view that our behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual. Therefore behaviour is caused by previous experiments learned through classical and operant conditioning. Eg: phobias are learned through conditioning
3: free will and determinism
What is psychic determinism?
Claims that human behaviour is the result of childhood experiences and innate drives (Id, ego and superego) as in Freuds model of psychosexual behaviour. For example Freuds psychosexual stages of development, each characterised by conflict which if unresolved, leads to fixation in adulthood
3: free will and determinism
Strengths of determism and free will
P: A strength of the free will argument is its face validity; everyday experience suggests we exercise free will through the choices we make daily.
Eg: Roberts found that adolescents who believed their lives were controlled by external factors (fatalism) were more likely to develop depression.
Ex: This suggests that having an internal locus of control, believing we influence our lives, is associated with better mental health.
L: This implies that even if free will is an illusion, the perception of it can positively impact mental well-being.
3: free will and determinism
Limitatioms of determinism and free will
P: A limitation of the free will argument comes from neurological evidence supporting determinism.
Eg: Libet found that brain activity in motor areas occurred before participants consciously decided to move their finger, suggesting that what we perceive as a conscious decision may actually be a pre-determined action, with consciousness acting as a “read out.”
Ex: Further studies show that brain activity in the prefrontal cortex occurs up to 10 seconds before conscious decision-making, implying that actions may be initiated unconsciously. This supports the idea that free will could be an illusion.
C: Some argue that conscious awareness may still play a role in vetoing pre-initiated actions, known as “free won’t.”
L: This suggests a nuanced relationship between determinism and free will, where conscious choice may still influence actions within a deterministic framework.
P: A limitation of determinism is that it oversimplifies human behavior, failing to account for its complexity.
Eg: Aggression cannot be solely explained by biological factors like adrenaline; cognitive factors and emotions play a crucial role and are often more influential.
Ex: Human behavior is less rigid than that of non-human animals, as it’s influenced by cognitive processes that can override biological impulses.
L: This weakens the validity of determinism when applied to human behavior, as it overlooks the complexity of cognitive, emotional, and social factors that shape actions.
4: nature vs nurture
What aspect does ‘nature’ focus on as driving behavior?
Inherited influences (hereditary)
Nativists (eg, Descartes): some characteristics and knowledge are innate
Psychological characteristics (intelligence and personality) are determined by biological factors (genes) just like physical factors
4: nature vs nurture
What philosophical tradition does nature follow on from?
Heredity: the process by which traits are passed from parents to offspring. Can be qualified (eg hereditary coefficient of intelligence is 0.5) – Plomin et al.) so influences of nature and nurture are equal
4: nature vs nurture
What does the ‘nature’ position propose about psychological characteristics?
Influence of experience/environment
Empiricists (eg: Lock) the mind is a blank state (tabula rasa) layer shaped by experience
Lerner identified different ‘levels’ of environment: from pre-natal experiences eg: mothers physiological and psychological state……
4: nature vs nurture
Which psychological approach does nurture
most closely aligned with?
Behaviourist approach
4: nature vs nurture
What is the interactionist approach?
Both nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour. The nature nurture debate is now out of date instead psychologists consider relative contribution made by both nature and nurture
4: nature vs nurture
What is the diathesis-stress model?
Behaviour is caused by biological factors / genetic variability. And is triggered by environmental stressors
4: nature vs nurture
How is epigenetics seen to influence psychology?
A change in genetic activity (switching genes on and off) without a change in the genetic code. as a result of environmental changes (eg diet,
stress, toxins). Some epigenetic modifications can be passed from one generation to the next, meaning that the environmental factors influencing your parents or grandparents can impact your gene expression so changes gene expression and therefore changes your phenotype
4: nature vs nurture
Provide examples of the interactionist approach
Concordance rates for schizophrenia is 40% for MZ twins and 7% for DZ twins.
This illustrates how nature plays a part in contribution to the disorder
But concordance rates for MZ twins are not 100% despite being genetically identical suggesting that nurture and environment also plays a significant role in Development.
An infant’s interaction type may be driven by the interaction of parental warmth (Bowlby, 1965), an environmental influence, which is itself influenced by the baby’s temperament (Kagan, 1984)
Bandura proposed that behaviour is acquired indirectly through operant and classical conditioning but also by directly through vicarious reinforcement.
• He acknowledged that biology had a role to play e.g. the urge to act aggressively could be biological but the way a person learns to express anger is through environmental influences (such as through observing and imitating the methods of expression of anger displayed by the identified role models).
4: nature vs nurture
Provide an example of the diathesis stress model
Patients with schizophrenia have a genetic vulnerability, but this is only expressed if they come into contact with environmental triggers (stressors), and may not otherwise develop the disorder
4: nature vs nurture
Provide an example of the epigenetic approach
Lifestyle (smoking, diet, trauma) can causes genes to switch off/on, which could also be passed on to offspring
4: nature vs nurture
What does concordance mean?
Level of similarity between 2 people usually siblings, as measured by a correlation coefficient (between 1 and 0)
4; nature vs nurture
What aspect does nurture focus on?
What philosophical tradition does this follow on from?
Nurture: influence of experience/environment
• Empiricists (eg Locke): the mind is a blank slate at birth (tabula rasa), later shaped by experience.
• Lerner identified different ‘levels’ of environment: from pre-natal experiences (eg mother’s physiological and psychological state during pregnancy) and post-natal experiences (socio-historical context the child grew up in)
4: Nature vs nurture
How are concordance and heritability linked?
The concordance gives an estimate about whether the trait is heritable: the proportion of differnce between individuals In a population due to a genetic variation:
- IQ heritability is approx 0.5 approx (Plomin, 1994): half of a person’s IQ is determined by genetic factors, and half by environmental factors.
- Concordance rates for monozygotic (identical) twins is higher (40%) than dizygotic (non-identical) twins (7%)
4: Nature vs nurture
Strengths of the interactionist approach
Diathesis-Stress Model:
P: A strength of the interactionist approach is the Diathesis-Stress Model, which shows the interplay between nature and nurture in psychological disorders.
E: Tienari (2004) studied 145 Finnish adoptees with a genetic risk for schizophrenia, comparing them with 158 without this risk. After 12 years, 14 adoptees developed schizophrenia, 11 from the high-risk group. Those with genetic predisposition raised in high-stress environments were more likely to develop the disorder, while those raised in supportive environments were less likely.
E: This shows that genetic vulnerability alone doesn’t determine schizophrenia development; environmental stressors trigger genetic risks. Children raised in nurturing environments had a lower risk of developing schizophrenia, emphasizing the protective effect of supportive surroundings.
L: Thus, the Diathesis-Stress Model supports the interactionist approach, showing both genetic and environmental factors are crucial in understanding psychological disorders.
Real-world Application to Mental Health:
P: A strength of the interactionist approach is its real-world application, particularly in understanding and managing mental health disorders like OCD.
E: Nedstat et al. (2010) found that the heritability rate of OCD is 0.76, indicating a significant genetic component. However, high heritability does not guarantee development of the disorder.
E: This suggests that even with a genetic predisposition, OCD development can be influenced by environmental factors like stress management, guiding genetic counseling to mitigate risks.
L: Therefore, the interactionist approach offers practical applications in mental health, emphasizing the need to understand the complex relationship between genetic predispositions and environmental factors.
4: Nature vs nurture
Limitation of interactionist approach
P: A limitation of the nature-nurture debate is the difficulty in separating the influences of nature and nurture.
E: Maguire et al. (2000) found that London taxi drivers had a larger hippocampus, associated with spatial memory, compared to control participants. This change was correlated with the time spent as a taxi driver, indicating the influence of environmental factors (nurture). However, this adaptation is also linked to the brain’s innate capacity for neuroplasticity, a genetically determined trait (nature).
E: This highlights the challenge in attributing the brain’s changes to either nature or nurture, as both are involved in the process. The difficulty is also evident in twin studies, where higher concordance rates between identical twins may reflect both genetic similarities (nature) and shared environments (nurture).
L: This complex interplay between nature and nurture undermines the validity of trying to attribute behavior solely to one factor, showing that behavior cannot be simply reduced to determinism or free will.
5: Holism vs reductionism
What are the 5 levels of explanation?
From least to most reductionist
Social cultural
Psychological/ cognitive
Behavioural
Physiological
Neurochemical
5: Holism vs reductionism
What are the levels of explaination
Social and cultural level: most holistic level, involving social interactions, cultural norms, and societal influences.
Psychological level: includes cognitive processes, emotions, and learned behaviors. For instance, cognitive explanations for depression might focus on negative thinking patterns, while behavioral explanations might consider how reinforcement history contributes to depressive symptoms.
Biological level: most reductionist level of explanation and includes genetic, neurochemical, and physiological processes. reduces complex behaviors to their simplest biological components.
5: Holism vs reductionism
How do the explanations differ?
Explanations vary from those at a lower or fundamental level focusing on basic components or units to those at a higher more holistic multivariable levels
5: Holism vs reductionism
What is a definition of holism?
The idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience and not as separate parts
5: Holism vs reductionism
What is a definition of reductionism?
The belief that human behavior is best understood by studying the smaller constituent parts; use the principle of parsimony; explanations via the simplest, lowest level principles.
5: Holism vs reductionism
How does holism vs reductionism differ from other issues/debates?
There’s no continuum between holism and reductionism; as soon as you start to break down a holistic approach, it isn’t really holistic anymore
5: Holism vs reductionism
Describe 3 aspects of holism
Focuses on the individuals experience, which can’t be reduced eg: biological units
Emphasises the idea that human behavior should be viewed as a whole, rather than as a sum of its parts
Argues that to truly understand an individuals behavior, thoughts and emotions, one mist consider all aspects of their experience, including their environment, relationships and personal goals
Compatible with the humanistic approach
Uses qualitative measures to investigate the self, focusing on overarching themes, rather than individual component behaviors.
Contrasts with reductionist approaches, which attempt to break down behavior into smaller component for analysis
5: Holism vs reductionism
Give an example of holism
Humanistic psychology argues humans react to stimuli as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimuli response link
Human sims tries to understand influences behavior by looking at where they are on Maslows Heirarchy of needs and their realisation of self actualisation
Rogers person-centred therapy is related to this approach, focussing on the importance of the patients subjective experience, with the therapist providing unconditional positive regard to help the patient understand their subjective feelings and experiences as a whole
5: Holism vs reductionism
Apply a levels of explanation to OCD
Social and cultural explainatioms: atypical behavior eg: repetitive hand washing
Psychological: individual experiences of obsessive thoughts
Physical: sequence of movements in hand washing
Environmental: learned experiences through conditioning
Physiological: abnormal functioning of fromtal lobes responsible for planning
Neurochemical: under-production of serotonin so use SSRI’s as treatments
5: Holism vs reductionism
What is environmental reductionism, and what approach is it linked to?
All behaviour is acquired through stimulus response interactions (behaviourism)
Eg:
- Learning theory of attachemnt
- Phobias (eg: little Albert) obtained and maintained using classical and operant conditions
5: Holism vs reductionism
What is biological reductionism and what approach is it linked to?
All behaviour is explained through neurochemical, physiological, evolutionary or genetic mechanisms
Eg:
- Antipsychotic drugs to treat dopamine deficits in schizophrenia
- Doressiom can be explained as a result of serotonin in the synaptic gaps between neurons and treated using SSRI’s
5: Holism vs reductionism
Strengths of reductionism
P: A strength of reductionism is its parsimony, allowing complex behaviors to be understood and studied systematically.
E: Experimental psychology often reduces complex behaviors into isolated variables, such as breaking down cognitive processes like memory into components like the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.
E: This approach helps researchers study specific factors in a controlled manner, establishing causal relationships that would be difficult to interpret if all influencing factors were studied at once.
L: This increase in validity gives psychology credibility, placing it on equal terms with natural sciences and potentially leading to effective treatments for mental health disorders by focusing on singular causal factors.
P: A strength of the reductionist approach is its practical application in the development of drug therapies for mental health.
E: By isolating biological factors like neurotransmitter imbalances, researchers have developed selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) to alleviate symptoms of depression by targeting serotonin deficiency.
E: While this has led to effective treatments, it oversimplifies complex disorders by neglecting broader psychological and social factors, limiting its explanatory power.
L: The reductionist approach has improved understanding and treatment of mental health, but this comes at the cost of overlooking the broader context of a patient’s life experience.
5: Holism vs reductionism
Limitatioms of reductionism
P: A limitation of reductionism is that biological reductionism may lead to errors in understanding, as it overlooks the complexity of human behavior, reducing validity.
E: For instance, treating ADHD solely with drugs like Ritalin, based on the belief that it’s just a neurochemical imbalance, addresses only the symptoms and not the underlying causes of the condition.
E: While Ritalin may reduce symptoms, the true causes of ADHD remain unaddressed, and the variable success rates of drug therapy suggest that a purely biological understanding is insufficient.
L: A holistic approach, considering the broader context and underlying causes of disorders, may lead to more effective treatments that tackle both symptoms and root causes.
5: Holism vs reductionism
Strength of holism
P: A strength of holism is that it considers the wider context surrounding an individual, highlighting social behaviors that emerge only within group settings.
E: For example, the Stanford Prison experiment demonstrated that conformity to social roles and deindividuation cannot be understood by examining individuals alone; it was the group interactions that played a key role.
E: The interaction between participants in the prison setting revealed how individuals conformed to their social roles due to the power of the group context.
L: This demonstrates that a holistic approach is crucial for understanding the complexities of behavior, with real-world applications in areas such as social psychology and group dynamics.
5: Holism vs reductionism
Limitation of holism
P: A limitation of the holistic approach is that it often adopts unscientific methods, leading to a lack of empirical evidence.
E: For example, the humanistic approach doesn’t rely on empirical methods to study cause-and-effect behavior; it avoids isolating variables, instead focusing on the whole person using qualitative methods like self-reports.
E: While this allows for a deep understanding of the individual, it lacks the ability to establish clear causal relationships and make predictions, as reductionism does.
L: Therefore, the holistic approach may reduce the credibility of psychology as a science, making it harder to understand human behavior due to its methodological limitations, though some argue that not all aspects of human psychology can be studied scientifically.
6: idiographic vs nomothetic
What is the origin of the word, ‘idiographic’
Greek word ‘idios’ which means ‘own’ or ‘private’
6: idiographic vs nomothetic
What does the idiographic approach focus on?
It focusses on the individual and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature.
6: idiographic vs nomothetic
What is the origin of the word ‘Nomothetic’
Greek word ‘nomos’ which means ‘law’
6: idiographic vs nomothetic
What does the nomothetic approach focus on?
It’s concerned with establishing general laws, based on the study of large groups of people
6: idiographic vs nomothetic
List 6 characteristics of the idiographic approach
Aims:
-Focuses on the detail about the individual
- Generalisations could be made but this isn’t the focus ,which is on the individual
-subjective and rich human experience is used as a way of explaining behavior ,without the aim of developing general principles and unifying laws
Method:
-low number of ppts in research, often case studies, not groups
-qualititve research (eg: first hand personal accounts of patients)
-use of in depth unstructured interviews
6: idiographic vs nomothetic
Give 2 examples of the idiographic approach
Most assossiated with humanistic and psychodynamic approaches
-Maslow/Rogers:
-studied process of self-development, based on in depth therapeutic interviews
-focus on the process of unconditioned positive regard
-takes a holistic approach to research, focusing on the experience of the individual
-Freud:
-pyschodynamic approach: case studies and in-depth interviews
-close observations of ‘Little Hans’ to explain phobias
-later formed basis of Oedipus and Electra complexes (generalisation)
6: idiographic vs nomothetic
List 4 characteristics of the nomothetic approach
Aims:
-to quantify human behavior to establish generalisations, to create general ‘laws’ of behavior that provide unifying people and control behaviour
- Radford & Kirby suggested the aim is to
1) classify people into groups
2) establish principles of behavior that can be applied to people in general
3) establish dimensions along which people can be placed, compared, measured
Method:
-use of statistical techniques and quantitive research. Closely related to the specific approach: hypothesis, sample recruitment & testing; lab experiments, controlled observations, statistical significance testing
-tools may include structured interviews or psychological tests
6: idiographic vs nomothetic
Give 2 examples of the nomothetic approach
Most associated with biological, cognitive and behaviourist approaches
-Skinner (behaviourist):
Behaviourists explain all behaviour in terms of simple stimulus-response links, which have been learned through experience
Studied animals using laboratory experiments using string control of extraneous and confounding variables to allow a cause and effect relationship to be establish and ascertain general laws of learning
-Tulving (cognitive/biological)
makes use of brain scans to make inferences about localisation of brain function. For example, the use of PET scans by Tulving
Helped to establish that semantic memories were recalled from the left prefrontal cortex, whilst episodic memories were recalled from the right prefrontal cortex
Sperry:
Split-brain research, using repeated testing to inform brain lateralisation
6: idiographic vs nomothetic
Is the idiographic approach objective or subject
- Objectivity seen as not possible
- Individual experience of personal context
6: idiographic vs nomothetic
Is the nomothetic approach objective or subjective
- Objectivity is central to the approach
- Uses standardised tests
- Aims to establish replication
- Aims to exclude bias
6: idiographic vs nomothetic
Strength of nomothetic approach
P: A strength of the nomothetic approach is that it follows a scientific method, utilizing experimental (quantitative) techniques to allow for replication and examination of reliability.
E: For example, cognitive psychologists model working memory, with its components reliably measured through operationalized categories, which increases internal validity.
E: The efforts to reduce bias and objectively collect data enhance the scientific credibility of the findings. The creation of norms, such as an average IQ score of 100, provides a useful baseline for comparing intellectual abilities and mental disorders.
L: This scientific approach has helped psychology establish itself as a valid scientific discipline and advanced the understanding of human behaviour.
6: idiographic vs nomothetic
Limitation of the nomothetic approach
P: A limitation of the nomothetic approach is that while it can predict group behavior, it cannot predict individual behavior due to its focus on quantitative data and statistical analysis.
E: For example, Milgram’s research found that 65% of participants obeyed an authority figure and inflicted a 450-volt shock, but it did not explain why each person obeyed, as different circumstances may have influenced each individual’s behavior.
E: Idiographic researchers would argue that Milgram’s findings apply only to groups and not individuals, providing a superficial understanding of human behavior.
L: This limits the validity of the nomothetic approach, as group findings are not always applicable to individuals, and understanding individuals is key to making accurate predictions about behavior, as Allport (1937) argued.
6: idiographic vs nomothetic
Strength of the idiographic approach
P: A strength of the idiographic approach in using the case study method is its ability to evaluate psychological theories.
E: For example, the case study of HM challenged the Multi-Store Model of Memory, showing that long-term memory comprises more than one type. HM could form new procedural memories but not episodic or semantic memories, which contradicted the model’s claim of a single, unitary LTM store.
E: This led to Tulving’s development of the theory of three distinct types of LTM stores.
L: The idiographic approach adds validity to psychological theories, as case studies can generate further research, contributing to the development of new theories and improving our understanding of human behavior.
6: idiographic vs nomothetic
Limitation of idiographic approach
P: A limitation of the idiographic approach is that it is less scientific than the nomothetic approach.
E: For example, its emphasis on in-depth data collection and difficulty in making generalizations contradicts the goal of science to explain most variations in the fewest terms, enabling prediction and control.
E: Research that does not address these goals can be seen as scientifically pointless, limiting the idiographic approach’s ability to produce general laws or predictions about human behavior.
L: As a result, the idiographic approach is less practical for diagnosing and treating psychological disorders, suggesting that combining both approaches may strengthen research findings.
7: ethics
Give examples of unethical studies?
Milrams shock experiment
Stanford prisiomers experiment
Watson’s Little Albert
The Monster study: 20 orphans, one group told were given positive feedback on their stutter, other group received negitive feedback. Nat became withdrawn, anxious.
7: ethics
What are the ethical considerations in studies?
- The potential for consequences to individuals
- Potential for wider groups eg: findings effect the target population
- Consequences for social policy Eg: funding
7: ethics
What’s the link between pyschologicql research and socially sensitive research?
All psychological research has potential ethical considerations, but especially socially-sensitive research
7: ethics
What is socially-sensitive research
Defined by Sieber and Stanley.
Studies with the potential consequences either directly for ppts in research or for the class of individuals represented by the research
7: ethics
What are the British psychological society guidelines
respect
-competence
-responsibility
-integrity
7: ethics
What ethical issues can arise if one breaches BPS guidelines
privacy
-confidentiality
-valid methodology
-deception
- Informed consent
-Equitable treatment
- Scientific freedom
-Ownership of data
-Values and the risk/benefit ratio.
7: ethics
What ethical issues can arise if one breaches BPS guidelines
privacy
-confidentiality
-valid methodology
-deception
- Informed consent
-Equitable treatment
- Scientific freedom
-Ownership of data
-Values and the risk/benefit ratio.
7: ethics
Describe Sieber and Stanley’s key recommendations to address ethical issues assossiated with socially sensitive research
1) Awareness of potential consequences: researchers aware of this with their work for ppts, groups or populations, that the research concerns and should consider how the findings might be misused or misinterpreted in ways that can harm specific groups
2) Collaboration with targeted groups: researchers should work closely with group members who may be affected by this research to ensure research is respectful and sensitive to the needs of these groups
3) Careful framing of research questions: the way research questions are framed can influence interpretation and impact of research, they recommend researchers carefully consider how questions are posed to avoid reinforcing stereotypes or contribute to stigma
4) Ethical reflexivity: researchers could continually reflect on the ethical considerations of their work. So follow ethical guidelines ans think critically about the broader social impact of the research
5) Dissemination of findings: researchers should consider how they disseminate their findings, particularly in terms of how their findings might be used by others, they should strive to ensure that the dissemination doesn’t contribute to harm, misinterpretation or misuse of the research
7: ethics
Strengths of ethics
7: ethics
Limitations of ethics
