Paper 3: Issues And Debates

Question 1

What side does the biological approach take in the free will vs determinism debate

Answer 1

Biological determinism
behaviour is controlled by internal biological factors eg: genes, hormones and neurotransmitters

Question 2

What side does the biological approach take in the Nature vs nurture debate

Answer 2

Nature
behaviour is the result of innate biological factors eg: Genes, hormones, neurotransmitters

Question 3

What side does the biological approach take in the Reductionism v holism debate

Answer 3

Biological reductionism
behaviour is broken down into biological structures/processes

Question 4

What side does the biological approach take in the Ideographic vs nomothetic debate

Answer 4

Nomothetic
creates universal laws, as humans share similar physiologies

Question 5

Is the biological approach scientific?

Answer 5

Yes, the biological approach promotes scientific methods of investigation e.g. brain imaging

Question 6

What side does the behaviourist approach take in the free will vs determinism debate

Answer 6

Environmental determinism
behaviour is controlled by stimulus-response conditioning

Question 7

What side does the behaviourist approach take in the nature vs nurture debate

Answer 7

Nurture
humans and born as a tabula rasa and behaviour is learned through operant and classical conditioning through the environmental stimulus-response link

Question 8

What side does the behaviourist approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate

Answer 8

Environmental reductionism
Behaviour is broken down into a simple stimulus-response link

Question 9

What side does the behaviourist approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate

Answer 9

Nomothetic
Creates universal laws as behaviour is the result of a stimulus response link

Question 10

Is the behaviourist approach scientific

Answer 10

Yes, behaviourist approach utilises scientific methods of investigation e.g. lab experiments and animal research

Question 11

What side does the social learning theory approach take in the free will vs determinism debate

Answer 11

Soft determinism
Behaviour is controlled by environmental forces however, humans have a personal responsibility and free choice

Question 12

What side does the social learning theory approach take in the nature vs nurture debate

Answer 12

Nurture
Behaviour is learnt from observation and vicarious reinforcement

Question 13

What side does the social learning theory approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate

Answer 13

Partially reductionist
Shares elements of the behaviourist and cognitive approaches

Question 14

What side does the social learning theory approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate

Answer 14

Nomothetic
attempts to establish general laws of behaviour e.g. vicarious reinforcement

Question 15

Is the social learning theory scientific?

Answer 15

Mostly scientific
Utilises scientific methods but also takes into account mediational process

Question 16

What side does the cognitive approach take in the free will vs determinism debate?

Answer 16

Soft determinism
Behaviour is controlled by mediational processes that humans can choose what info they attend to

Question 17

What side does the cognitive approach take in the nature vs nurture debate?

Answer 17

Both
Behaviour is the product of info processing and modified by experience

Question 18

What side does the cognitive approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate?

Answer 18

Experimental reductionism
Behaviours investigated in terms of isolated variables (eg: capacity of STM)

Question 19

What side does the cognitive approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate?

Answer 19

Both,
Attempts to establish general laws of cognitive processing but utilises an idiographic approach with case studies

Question 20

Is the cognitive approach scientific?

Answer 20

Mostly scientific
Utilises scientific methods of investigation but researchers are unable to directly observe cognitive processes

Question 21

What side does the psychodynamic approach take in the free will vs determinism debate?

Answer 21

Psychic determinism
Behaviours determined by unconscious drives and early childhood experiences

Question 22

What side does the pyschodynamic approach take in the nature vs nurture debate?

Answer 22

Mostly nature
Behaviours the product of innate drives, but shaped by early childhood experiences

Question 23

What side does the pyschodynamic approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate?

Answer 23

Both,
Behaviours reduced to innate drives, while taking into account the multiple aspects of human behaviour

Question 24

What side does the pyschodynamic approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate?

Answer 24

Both
Attempts to establish general laws in relation to innate drives, while considering unique experiences during childhood

Question 25

Is the psychodynamic approach scientific

Answer 25

Not scientific
Examines many concepts and theories which can’t be empirically tested. Relies on subjective interpretation

Question 26

What side does the humanistic approach take in the free will vs determinism debate?

Answer 26

Free will
Humans control their own environment and are capable of change

Question 27

What side does the humanistic approach take in the nature vs nurture debate?

Answer 27

Mostly nurture
Behaviours shaped by the environment as humans strive to achieve self-actualisation

Question 28

What side does the humanistic approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate?

Answer 28

Holism
Focuses on understanding all aspects of human experience and interaction

Question 29

What side does the humanistic approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate?

Answer 29

Idiographic
Focuses on the subjective human experience and makes no attempt to create general laws

Question 30

Is the humanistic approach scientific

Answer 30

Not scientific
Rejects scientific methods and is unable to provide empirical evidence

Question 31

1: Gender

What does universality mean?

Answer 31

Concept that conclusions can be applied to everyone, anywhere, regardless of time or culture
Bias is a threat to universality as it can limit the generalisability to only a subset of the wider population

Question 32

1: Gender

What is gender bias?

Answer 32

The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real difference

Question 33

1: Gender

What is androcentrism?

Answer 33

dominated by the males or male viewpoint.
• Inthepastmostpsychologistsweremale,and the theories they
produced tended to represent a male view of the world.
• Thiscanaffectpsychologicalresearchasitprovidesapotentially misleading or inaccurate representation of how one sex (usually females) will respond in a given situation.
- can lead to alpha or beta bias

Question 34

1: Gender

Give 3 examples of classic studies in psychology, and explain how they may show a gender bias

Question 35

1: Gender

What biases can androcentrism lead to?

Answer 35

Beta and alpha bias

Question 36

1: Gender

What is a consequence of alpha bias?

Answer 36

Caused by attempting to avoid universality
A tendency to overemphasise/exaggeration of differences between males and females, with differences presented as fixed and inevitable
The consequences are that this leads to stereotypes and one gender is devalued in comparison with the other

Question 37

1: Gender

Give 2 examples of 2 studies which demonstrate alpha bias

Answer 37

Freud: argued girls don’t suffer the same Oedipal conflict as boys, they don’t identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their father, so develop weaker superego

Chondorow: women develop better bonds & empathy due to daughters, more than son, connected to mothers due to biological similarity

Question 38

1: Gender

What is beta bias?

Answer 38

Caused by trying to assume universality
A tendency to ignore or downplay differences between males and females
Assumes insights derived from studies of men will apply equally well to women

Question 39

1: Gender

Give examples of beta bias

Answer 39

Fight or flight response: carried out with make animals. It’s assumed this would not be a problem as the response would be the same for both sexes. Taylor suggets that the higher presence of oxytocin reduces fight or flight in women and promotes the tend/befriend
Ash, Milgram, Zimbardo: used all-male samples to draw conclusions about nature of, respectively, destructive obedience, normative conformity and conformity to social roles

Question 40

1: Gender

How do animal studies demonstrate beta bias?

Question 41

1: Gender

How can gender bias be overcome?

Question 42

1: Gender

2 advantages of the focus on gender bias

Answer 42

P: research in gender bias has led to contemporary psychology’s looking for ways to reduce it and increase value of women in society
Eg: Cornwell fond that females showed advantages in learning, showing more attentive and organised, this emphasising the positive attributes of women
Ex: therefore by acknowledging the differences some psychologists attempt to develop theories that emphasise the importance or value of women
L: as a result this type of research helps to overcome sexist attitudes and bias in research publications, therefore has application to society in the form of supporting social policies that promote gender equality

Efforts to implement non-gender research criteria
P: a strength in addressing gender bias in psychological research is the emphasis on implementing research criteria that ensure non-gender biased investigations
Eg: Worrell produced several criteria that are crucial for this purpose, such as employing alternative methods to explore the personal lives of women, considering women within their natural settings and collaborating with research ppts to examine personally relevant variables
Ex: researchers can now avoid biases that typically arise from more traditional approaches that might not fully capture the lived experiences of women. For example, traditional lab settings might not account for context of women’s lives, which can lead to misinterpretation of data
L: this approach has application in society, includes studying diverse samples, ensuring that reach findings are more reporesntitive and applicable for a broader range of women, thus reducing gender bias in psychological research.

Question 43

1: Gender

2 limitations of gender bias research

Answer 43

Sexist attitudes produce gender biased research
P: a limitation in the research process is the pro essence of sexism which has led to androcentrism
Eg: Murphy argues that research is more likely to be conducted by males, as there is a lack of women appointed at senior research positions in universities
Ex: This may disadvantage females. For example a male researcher may expect female ppts to be irrational and unable to complete complex tasks (Nicolson)
L: this has application to society as it means that the institution pal structures and methods of psychology may produce findings which are gender biased

Under publishing of gender confronting research
P: a limitation is that research which challenges gender bias is often not published
Eg: Formanwicz analysed 1000 articles relating to gender bias and found that such research is funded less and is featured in less prestigious journals
Ex: this still held true when gender bias was compared to ethnic bais, when other factors were controlled
L: this suggests that gender bias may still not be taken as seriously as other types of bias in the research process, implying that the research has yet to have seen full application in society

Question 44

2: Culture

What is the definition of ‘cultural bias’?

Answer 44

Tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions
Most of psychological research tends to suffer from a western bias and it’s assumed the findings can be applied to other cultures

Question 45

2: culture

What are WEIRD people?

Answer 45

Henrick noted that ‘WERID’ people were most likely to be studied by psychologists
Western
Educated
Industrialised
Rich
Democratic

Question 46

2: culture

What is ethnocentrism?

Answer 46

Seeing the world only from one own cultural perspective and believing that this one perspective is both normal and correct. An example of cultural bias

Question 47

2: culture

Give an example of ethnocentrism

Answer 47

Ainsworth and Bell: the strange situation
Assesses types of attachment
Many researchers assume the strange situation has the same meaning for infants from other cultures, as it does for American children
German children, higher rates of insecure-avoidant attachment, not because German mothers are more insensitive. Instead, they value and encourage independent behaviour’s and therefore their children react differently in the strange situation

Question 48

2: culture

What is cultural relativism?

Answer 48

nsists that behaviours can be properly understood only if in the cultural context is taken into consideration
Recognising this helps to minimise cultural bias

Question 49

2: culture

Give an example of cultural relativism

Answer 49

Meaning of intelligence is different in every culture
Sternberg pointed out that coordination skills that may e essential to life in a pre literate society may be mostly irrelevant to intelligent behaviour for most people in a literate and more developed society
So the only way to understand intelligence is to take the cultural context into account

Question 50

2: culture

Who proposed the etic v emic approach and imposed etic?

Answer 50

Berry

Question 51

2: culture

What is the ‘etic’ approach?

Answer 51

Outside

Looks at behaviour from outside a culture and identifies behaviours that’s are universal

Question 52

2: culture

What is the ‘emic’ approach?

Answer 52

Functions from inside a culture, and identifies behaviours that are specific to the culture

Inside

Question 53

2: culture

What does ‘imposed etic’ mean?

Answer 53

Ainsworh and Bell studied behaviours inside a single culture (America) and assumed the ideal attachemnt type could be applied universally

Question 54

2: culture

What does alpha bias mean with regard to culture?

Answer 54

Occurs when a theory assumes that cultural forums are profoundly different

Question 55

2: culture

What is beta bias with regard to culture?

Answer 55

Occurs when real cultural differences are ignored or minimised, and all people are assumed to be the same , resulting in universal research designs and conclusions

Question 56

2: culture

What is universality with regard to culture?

Answer 56

The idea that conclusions drawn in psychological can be applied to everyone body everywhere regardless of time or culture

Question 57

2: culture

1 strength of research into culture

Answer 57

P: strength of addressing cultural bias in psychological research is that it illuminates the distinction between universal behaviours and those that are culture-specific.
Eg: Ekman conducted extensive cross-cultural studies demonstrating that basic facial features like anger guilt and disgust are universally recognised, suggesting thes emotional expressions are like biologically predetermined and universally experienced, regardless of cultural context
Ex: the domain of attachment, concept of interactional syncrohny and reciprocity have been observed as universal elements of infant-career interactions, as evidence by research conducted by Tronick et al. through ‘Still Face’ experiment, which found that infants across different cultures react similarly to the sudden withdrawal of their Caregivers attention.
C: this highlights that while certain attachment behaviours are universal, other aspects of caregiving such as the value placed on independence versus interdependence, may vary significantly across cultures.
However it’s crucial to recognise that an overemphasis on university might lead to an ethnocentric bias, potentially overlooking important cultural differences. For instance, Takahashi found that the strange situation, a method developed in the West to assess attachment, often misinterprets behaviours In Japanese infants.
L: therefore, while the identification of universal behaviours is essential for a comprehensive understanding of human psychology, it’s equally important to consider cultural contexts that shape specific behaviours

Question 58

2: culture

2 limitations of research into culture

Answer 58

P: A limitation of many classic psychological studies is their cultural bias, which undermines the generalisability of their findings
Eg: Smith and Bond found that in one European text book on social psychology, 66% of the studies were American, 32% European and 2% from the rest of the world.
Both Asch’s conformity experiments and Milgrams obedience studies were conducted exclusively with white middle class, American ppts. And so we’re unrepresentative of other cultures, limiting the applicability of the findings across different cultural contexts.
Ex: when these studies were replicated in non-western collectivist cultures, the results varied slightly. For instance, Smith and Bond found that Asch-type studied conducted in Asia reported much higher rates of conformity compared to those in individualist cultures like the US
C: it’s important to note the distinction between individualist and collectivist cultures might be becoming less pronounced due to the influence on global media and cultural exchange. Takano and Osaka found in 14/15 studies, there was no significant evidence between collectivist and individualistic cultures indicating that these cultural catagories may be less relevant today
L: this calls for a more nuanced understanding of cultural influences in psychological research, recognising the dynamic and evolving nature of culture itself, which would increase the validity of findings when comparing cultures.

P: A limitation in psychological research is the perpetuation of ethnic stereotyping, which can have a profound social and ethical consequences.
Eg: Gound critically analysed the use of the first intelligence test in America, revealing how these tests promoted eugenic social policies, based on the errorneous belief that intelligence was inherited and varied significantly across different ethnic groups.
Ex: during WW1, psychologist administered IQ tests to 1.75 million army recruits. However, these tests had substantial ethnocentric biases, containing culturally specific items that disadvantaged individuals from non-western backgrounds. As a r3sult, recruits from minority ethnic groups often scored lower, because of the unfamiliarity with the cultural context of the test items. These lower scores were misinterpreted as evidence of genetic inferiority, fuelling racist ideologies and discriminatory practices
L: this illustrates how cultural bias in psychological research can be used to justify prejudice and discrimination against ethnic and cultural groups. It underscores the need for culturally sensitive research practices that recognise and account for cultural diversity rather than stereotyping.

Question 59

3: free will and determinism

What is free will?

Answer 59

The idea that we can play an active role and have a choice in how we behave. The assumption is that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self-determined so have agency over our actions

Question 60

3: free will and determinism

What is determinism?

Answer 60

The view that free will is an illusion, and that our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control so our behaviour is viewed as predictable.

Question 61

3: free will and determinism

What is hard determinism?

Answer 61

The view that forces outside of our control (eg: biology or past experience) shape all our behaviour, so there can be no free will
Eg: behaviourism suggests all behaviour is learnt. Biological approach sees behaviour as the product of our genes and neurochemistry

Question 62

3: free will and determinism

What is soft determinism?

Answer 62

The view that behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make-up. But omly to a certain extent and there’s an element of free will in behaviour.
Eg: cognitive approach suggests individuals can reason and makedecisioms within the limits of their cognitive system

Question 63

3: free will and determinism

What is biological determinism?

Answer 63

Idea that all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes
For example, the MAOA gene as a candidate gene for aggression

Question 64

3: free will and determinism

What is environmental determinism?

Answer 64

The view that our behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual. Therefore behaviour is caused by previous experiments learned through classical and operant conditioning. Eg: phobias are learned through conditioning

Question 65

3: free will and determinism

What is psychic determinism?

Answer 65

Claims that human behaviour is the result of childhood experiences and innate drives (Id, ego and superego) as in Freuds model of psychosexual behaviour. For example Freuds psychosexual stages of development, each characterised by conflict which if unresolved, leads to fixation in adulthood

Question 66

3: free will and determinism

Strengths of determism and free will

Answer 66

Free will has face validity.
P: a strength of the argument for free will is that it has face validity; everyday experience ‘gives the impression’ that we’re constantly exercising free will through the choices we make on any given day
Eg: a study by Roberts Demonstrated that adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism that their lives were decided by events outside of their control were at significantly greater rsi, of developing depression
Ex: this indicates that people who have an internal locus of control believing that they have a degree of influence over events and their own behaviour, tend to be more mentally healthy
L this suggests that even if we don’t have free will, by having the perception: that we do it can have useful real life application in improving mental well-being.

Question 67

3: free will and determinism

Limitatioms of determinism and free will

Answer 67

Neuropsychological evidence against free will
P: limitation to the argument for free will comes from evidence from neurological studies supporting determinism
Eg: Libet found that brain activity in motor areas occurred before ppts were consciously aware of their decision to move a finger. This suggests that what we perigee as a conscious decision might simply be the brain executing a pre-determined action, with consciousness acting as a ‘read out’ rather than the origin of the decision
Ex: Further studies have shown activity in the prefrontal cortex up to 10 secs before individuals report a conscious decision further supporting the idea that our actions may be initiated unconsciously. This evidence implies that our experience of free will could be an illusion, with our actions determined by brain processes outside our conscious
awareness
C: However, some argue that conscious awareness may still play a role in moderating or vetoing these pre-initiated actions, a concept known as “free won’
L: This perspective suggests a more nuanced relationship between determinism and free will, and increases the validity of the theory, where conscious choice might still exert some influence, even within a deterministic framework.

Determism oversimplifies human behaviour
P: limitation of determism is that it oversupplies human behaviour, failing to account for the complexity and variability inherent in human actions
Eg: aggression cannot be solely attributed to the endocrine system and the effects of adrenaline; cognitive factors and accompanying emotions play a crucial role and are often more influential than the biological aspects alone.
While determinism might appropriately describe the behavior of non-human animals, human
Ex: behaviour is less rigid and influenced by a multitude of factors, including cognitive processes that can override biological impulses.
L: This highlights a weakness in the validity of a purely deterministic approach when applied to human behavior. By reducing actions to simple biological causes, determinism neglects the significance of cognitive processes, emotions, and social contexts that interact in complex ways to shape behavior

Question 68

3: free will and determinism

Question 69

3: free will and determinism

Question 70

4: nature vs nurture

What aspect does ‘nature’ focus on as driving behavior?

Answer 70

Inherited influences (hereditary)
Nativists (eg, Descartes): some characteristics and knowledge are innate
Psychological characteristics (intelligence and personality) are determined by biological factors (genes) just like physical factors

Question 71

4: nature vs nurture

What philosophical tradition does nature follow on from?

Answer 71

Heredity: the process by which traits are passed from parents to offspring. Can be qualified (eg hereditary coefficient of intelligence is 0.5) – Plomin et al.) so influences of nature and nurture are equal

Question 72

4: nature vs nurture

What does the ‘nature’ position propose about psychological characteristics?

Answer 72

Influence of experience/environment
Empiricists (eg: Lock) the mind is a blank state (tabula rasa) layer shaped by experience
Lerner identified different ‘levels’ of environment: from pre-natal experiences eg: mothers physiological and psychological state……

Question 73

4: nature vs nurture

Which psychological approach does nurture
most closely aligned with?

Answer 73

Behaviourist approach

Question 74

4: nature vs nurture

What is the interactionist approach?

Answer 74

Both nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour. The nature nurture debate is now out of date instead psychologists consider relative contribution made by both nature and nurture

Question 75

4: nature vs nurture

What is the diathesis-stress model?

Answer 75

Behaviour is caused by biological factors / genetic variability. And is triggered by environmental stressors

Question 76

4: nature vs nurture

How is epigenetics seen to influence psychology?

Answer 76

A change in genetic activity (switching genes on and off) without a change in the genetic code. as a result of environmental changes (eg diet,
stress, toxins). Some epigenetic modifications can be passed from one generation to the next, meaning that the environmental factors influencing your parents or grandparents can impact your gene expression so changes gene expression and therefore changes your phenotype

Question 77

4: nature vs nurture

Provide examples of the interactionist approach

Answer 77

Concordance rates for schizophrenia is 40% for MZ twins and 7% for DZ twins.
This illustrates how nature plays a part in contribution to the disorder
But concordance rates for MZ twins are not 100% despite being genetically identical suggesting that nurture and environment also plays a significant role in Development.

An infant’s interaction type may be driven by the interaction of parental warmth (Bowlby, 1965), an environmental influence, which is itself influenced by the baby’s temperament (Kagan, 1984)

Bandura proposed that behaviour is acquired indirectly through operant and classical conditioning but also by directly through vicarious reinforcement.
• He acknowledged that biology had a role to play e.g. the urge to act aggressively could be biological but the way a person learns to express anger is through environmental influences (such as through observing and imitating the methods of expression of anger displayed by the identified role models).

Question 78

4: nature vs nurture

Provide an example of the diathesis stress model

Answer 78

Patients with schizophrenia have a genetic vulnerability, but this is only expressed if they come into contact with environmental triggers (stressors), and may not otherwise develop the disorder

Question 79

4: nature vs nurture

Provide an example of the epigenetic approach

Answer 79

Lifestyle (smoking, diet, trauma) can causes genes to switch off/on, which could also be passed on to offspring

Question 80

4: nature vs nurture

What does concordance mean?

Answer 80

Level of similarity between 2 people usually siblings, as measured by a correlation coefficient (between 1 and 0)

Question 81

4; nature vs nurture

What aspect does nurture focus on?

What philosophical tradition does this follow on from?

Answer 81

Nurture: influence of experience/environment
• Empiricists (eg Locke): the mind is a blank slate at birth (tabula rasa), later shaped by experience.
• Lerner identified different ‘levels’ of environment: from pre-natal experiences (eg mother’s physiological and psychological state during pregnancy) and post-natal experiences (socio-historical context the child grew up in)

Question 82

4: Nature vs nurture

How are concordance and heritability linked?

Answer 82

The concordance gives an estimate about whether the trait is heritable: the proportion of differnce between individuals In a population due to a genetic variation:
- IQ heritability is approx 0.5 approx (Plomin, 1994): half of a person’s IQ is determined by genetic factors, and half by environmental factors.
- Concordance rates for monozygotic (identical) twins is higher (40%) than dizygotic (non-identical) twins (7%)

Question 83

4: Nature vs nurture

Strengths of the interactionist approach

Answer 83

A of the interactionist approach to the nature/nurture debate is the Diathesis-Stress Model, which highlights the interplay between nature and nurture in the development of psychological disorders.
Tienari studied 145 Finnish adoptees with a genetic risk for schizophrenia, comparing them with 158 adoptees without such a risk. After 12 years, 14 adoptees developed schizophrenia, 11 of whom were from the high-risk group. Importantly, those with a genetic predisposition who were raised in high-stress, low- empathy environments were more likely to develop the disorder, whereas those without the genetic risk did not, even in similar environments.
This study demonstrates that genetic vulnerability alone does not determine the development of schizophrenia; rather, the disorder emerges when environmental stressors trigger these genetic risks. Children with a genetic predisposition but raised in a supportive environment were less likely to develop schizophrenia, emphasizing the protective effect of a nurturing environment.
Thus, the Diathesis-Stress Model supports an integrative view,
increasing the of the interactionist approach, showing that both genetic predispositions and environmental factors are crucial
in understanding psychological disorders, blending nature and nurture into a comprehensive explanation.

A strength of the interactionist approach to the nature- nurture debate is that it has real-world application, particularly in understanding and managing mental health disorders, like OCD.
Nedstat et al. (2010) found that the heritability rate of OCD is approximately 0.76, indicating a significant genetic component. However, high heritability does not guarantee that an individual will develop the disorder.
This finding is crucial for genetic counseling, as it highlights that even with a high genetic predisposition, the development of OCD can be influenced by environmental factors such as stress management. Individuals with a family history of OCD can be advised on strategies to mitigate their risk, illustrating the importance of the interactionist approach that considers both genetic and environmental influences.
Therefore, the nature-nurture debate extends beyond
theoretical discourse, offering practical insights that have L direct application, guiding preventative measures and
interventions in mental health, emphasizing the need to understand the complex interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental factors.

Question 84

4: Nature vs nurture

Limitation of interactionist approach

Answer 84

limitation of the nature-nurture debate is the inherent difficulty in

separating the influences of nature and nurture.
For example, Maguire et al.’s (2000) study on London taxi drivers found that the region of the brain associated with spatial memory, the hippocampus, was larger in taxi drivers than in control participants. This change in brain structure was correlated with the length of time spent as a taxi driver, suggesting that the brain’s development was influenced by environmental factors (nurture) such as extensive spatial navigation experience. However, this adaptation is also underpinned by the brain’s innate capacity for neuroplasticity, a genetically determined trait (nature). This makes it challenging to attribute the changes solely to either nature or nurture.
The difficulty in disentangling these factors is further evident in twin studies. For example, when identical twins show higher concordance rates for a trait, it might be tempting to attribute this to their shared genetics (nature). However, identical twins often experience more similar environments than fraternal twins, including being treated more similarly by parents due to their identical appearance. This could mean that the higher concordance rates are not purely due to genetics but also to the similar environments they share (nurture).
Thus, even in rigorous scientific studies, it remains challenging to separate nature from nurture, demonstrating the complex interplay between these factors, and undermining the validity of attributing behaviour to either one of determinism or free will.

Question 85

5: Holism vs reductionism

What are the 5 levels of explanation?

Answer 85

From least to most reductionist

Social cultural
Psychological/ cognitive
Behavioural
Physiological
Neurochemical

Question 86

5: Holism vs reductionism

What are the levels of explaination

Answer 86

Social and cultural level: most holistic level, involving social interactions, cultural norms, and societal influences.

Psychological level: includes cognitive processes, emotions, and learned behaviors. For instance, cognitive explanations for depression might focus on negative thinking patterns, while behavioral explanations might consider how reinforcement history contributes to depressive symptoms.

Biological level: most reductionist level of explanation and includes genetic, neurochemical, and physiological processes. reduces complex behaviors to their simplest biological components.

Question 87

5: Holism vs reductionism

How do the explanations differ?

Answer 87

Explanations vary from those at a lower or fundamental level focusing on basic components or units to those at a higher more holistic multivariable levels

Question 88

5: Holism vs reductionism

What is a definition of holism?

Answer 88

The idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience and not as separate parts

Question 89

5: Holism vs reductionism

What is a definition of reductionism?

Answer 89

The belief that human behavior is best understood by studying the smaller constituent parts; use the principle of parsimony; explanations via the simplest, lowest level principles.

Question 90

5: Holism vs reductionism

How does holism vs reductionism differ from other issues/debates?

Answer 90

There’s no continuum between holism and reductionism; as soon as you start to break down a holistic approach, it isn’t really holistic anymore

Question 91

5: Holism vs reductionism

Describe 3 aspects of holism

Answer 91

Focuses on the individuals experience, which can’t be reduced eg: biological units
Emphasises the idea that human behavior should be viewed as a whole, rather than as a sum of its parts
Argues that to truly understand an individuals behavior, thoughts and emotions, one mist consider all aspects of their experience, including their environment, relationships and personal goals
Compatible with the humanistic approach
Uses qualitative measures to investigate the self, focusing on overarching themes, rather than individual component behaviors.
Contrasts with reductionist approaches, which attempt to break down behavior into smaller component for analysis

Question 92

5: Holism vs reductionism

Give an example of holism

Answer 92

Humanistic psychology argues humans react to stimuli as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimuli response link
Human sims tries to understand influences behavior by looking at where they are on Maslows Heirarchy of needs and their realisation of self actualisation

Rogers person-centred therapy is related to this approach, focussing on the importance of the patients subjective experience, with the therapist providing unconditional positive regard to help the patient understand their subjective feelings and experiences as a whole

Question 93

5: Holism vs reductionism

Apply a levels of explanation to OCD

Answer 93

Social and cultural explainatioms: atypical behavior eg: repetitive hand washing
Psychological: individual experiences of obsessive thoughts
Physical: sequence of movements in hand washing
Environmental: learned experiences through conditioning
Physiological: abnormal functioning of fromtal lobes responsible for planning
Neurochemical: under-production of serotonin so use SSRI’s as treatments

Question 94

5: Holism vs reductionism

What is environmental reductionism, and what approach is it linked to?

Answer 94

All behaviour is acquired through stimulus response interactions (behaviourism)
Eg:
- Learning theory of attachemnt
- Phobias (eg: little Albert) obtained and maintained using classical and operant conditions

Question 95

5: Holism vs reductionism

What is biological reductionism and what approach is it linked to?

Answer 95

All behaviour is explained through neurochemical, physiological, evolutionary or genetic mechanisms
Eg:
- Antipsychotic drugs to treat dopamine deficits in schizophrenia
- Doressiom can be explained as a result of serotonin in the synaptic gaps between neurons and treated using SSRI’s

Question 96

5: Holism vs reductionism

Strengths of reductionism

Answer 96

A of reductionism is that psychologists are drawn to its parsimony, as it allows complex behaviors to be understood and studied systematically and scientifically
For example, most experimental psychology is based on the assumption that human behaviour can be studied effectively in relatively simple experiments, where complex behaviour is reduced to isolated variables (known as experimental reductionism). For example, reducing cognitive processes like memory, into the phonological loop and visuospatial scratchpad to explain the active process of working memory.
This allows researchers to study the different factors that influence human behaviour in a controlled manner while establishing a causal relationship. This would not be possible if psychologists attempted to study all of the factors that influence human behaviour at once, as it would be too complex to interpret the findings.
This increase validity and gives psychology greater credibility, placing it on equal terms with natural sciences down in reductionist hierarchy, and is more likely to lead to the development of effective treatments for mental health disorders by focussing on singular causal factors

A strength of the reductionist approach is its practical application in the development of effective drug therapies, particularly in the treatment of mental disorders.
By adopting a reductionist perspective, researchers have been able to isolate specific biological factors, such as neurotransmitter imbalances, that contribute to conditions like depression.
This has led to the development of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which are widely used to alleviate depressive symptoms by targeting serotonin deficiency.
However, it is important to note that while this approach has clear benefits, it may also oversimplify complex disorders by neglecting the broader psychological and social factors that contribute to mental health, thereby limiting its overall explanatory power.
Overall, the reductionist approach has not only advanced our understanding of mental health but its application has also significantly improved the quality of life for many individuals by offering accessible and effective treatment options, but this may be at the cost of not understanding the impact of the treatment in the broader context of the patient’s life experience.

Question 97

5: Holism vs reductionism

Limitatioms of reductionism

Answer 97

A limitation of reductionism is that some psychologists argue that biological reductionism can lead to errors of understanding because it ignores the complexity of human behaviour, leading to a loss of validity.
For example, to treat conditions like ADHD with drugs in the belief that the condition consists of nothing more than neurochemical imbalances is to mistake the symptoms of the phenomenon for its true cause. Ritalin may reduce these symptoms, but the conditions which gave rise to the ADHD have not been addressed.
Whether or not this is true depends on what one thinks of as causation, but since success rates of drug therapy are so highly variable, the purely biological understanding seems at least, insufficient.
It may be argued that the application of a holistic explanation of disorders would also allow for more effective treatments to be developed, that would address causal issues of the problem, rather than purely symptomatic problems.

Question 98

5: Holism vs reductionism

Strength of holism

Answer 98

strength of holism is that it considers the wider context surrounding an individual. There are often aspects of social behaviour that can only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood at an individual level.
For example, conformity to social roles and deindividuation of the prisoners and guards in the Stanford Prison experiment cannot be understood by studying the participants as individuals, it was the interaction between people and the behaviour of the group that was important.
Therefore, it was imperative that a holistic approach was taken to understand how people can conform to social roles and the power of the situation.
This shows that in some areas of psychology, a holistic approach is more suitable to really understand the complexities of human behaviour, with real-world application to many areas, in this case to .

Question 99

5: Holism vs reductionism

Limitation of holism

Answer 99

limitation of the holistic approach is that it often adopts unscientific
approaches leading to a lack of empirical evidence
For example, the humanistic approach is less scientific because it does not study clear cause and effect behaviour through empirical methods; to do this requires reductionism. Scientific psychology aims to be able to predict and control behaviour, and isolate smaller, constituent parts of behaviour are easily measured and manipulated under strict laboratory conditions, to establish causal relationships between variables.
However, the holistic approach avoids isolating constituents and instead focuses on the whole person, typically using qualitative methods, relying mainly on self-report techniques.
However, for humanists ‘the self’ is the most essential and unique quality of human beings. It is what makes us what we are and is the basis of a difference between psychology and natural sciences.
Therefore, the holistic approach could be said to reduce the validity and therefore the credibility of ‘psychology as a science’ and makes it harder to understand human behaviour due to its methodological limitations. Though others would suggest the scientific approach cannot be applied to all aspects of human psychology

Question 100

6: idiographic vs nomothetic

What is the origin of the word, ‘idiographic’

Answer 100

Greek word ‘idios’ which means ‘own’ or ‘private’

Question 101

6: idiographic vs nomothetic

What does the idiographic approach focus on?

Answer 101

It focusses on the individual and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature.

Question 102

6: idiographic vs nomothetic

What is the origin of the word ‘Nomothetic’

Answer 102

Greek word ‘nomos’ which means ‘law’

Question 103

6: idiographic vs nomothetic

What does the nomothetic approach focus on?

Answer 103

It’s concerned with establishing general laws, based on the study of large groups of people

Question 104

6: idiographic vs nomothetic

List 6 characteristics of the idiographic approach

Answer 104

Aims:
-Focuses on the detail about the individual
- Generalisations could be made but this isn’t the focus ,which is on the individual
-subjective and rich human experience is used as a way of explaining behavior ,without the aim of developing general principles and unifying laws
Method:
-low number of ppts in research, often case studies, not groups
-qualititve research (eg: first hand personal accounts of patients)
-use of in depth unstructured interviews

Question 105

6: idiographic vs nomothetic

Give 2 examples of the idiographic approach

Answer 105

Most assossiated with humanistic and psychodynamic approaches

-Maslow/Rogers:
-studied process of self-development, based on in depth therapeutic interviews
-focus on the process of unconditioned positive regard
-takes a holistic approach to research, focusing on the experience of the individual

-Freud:
-pyschodynamic approach: case studies and in-depth interviews
-close observations of ‘Little Hans’ to explain phobias
-later formed basis of Oedipus and Electra complexes (generalisation)

Question 106

6: idiographic vs nomothetic

List 4 characteristics of the nomothetic approach

Answer 106

Aims:
-to quantify human behavior to establish generalisations, to create general ‘laws’ of behavior that provide unifying people and control behaviour
- Radford & Kirby suggested the aim is to
1) classify people into groups
2) establish principles of behavior that can be applied to people in general
3) establish dimensions along which people can be placed, compared, measured
Method:
-use of statistical techniques and quantitive research. Closely related to the specific approach: hypothesis, sample recruitment & testing; lab experiments, controlled observations, statistical significance testing
-tools may include structured interviews or psychological tests

Question 107

6: idiographic vs nomothetic

Give 2 examples of the nomothetic approach

Answer 107

Most associated with biological, cognitive and behaviourist approaches

-Skinner (behaviourist):
Behaviourists explain all behaviour in terms of simple stimulus-response links, which have been learned through experience
Studied animals using laboratory experiments using string control of extraneous and confounding variables to allow a cause and effect relationship to be establish and ascertain general laws of learning
-Tulving (cognitive/biological)
makes use of brain scans to make inferences about localisation of brain function. For example, the use of PET scans by Tulving
Helped to establish that semantic memories were recalled from the left prefrontal cortex, whilst episodic memories were recalled from the right prefrontal cortex
Sperry:
Split-brain research, using repeated testing to inform brain lateralisation

Question 108

6: idiographic vs nomothetic

Is the idiographic approach objective or subject

Answer 108

• Objectivity seen as not possible
• Individual experience of personal context

Question 109

6: idiographic vs nomothetic

Is the nomothetic approach objective or subjective

Answer 109

• Objectivity is central to the approach
• Uses standardised tests
• Aims to establish replication
• Aims to exclude bias

Question 110

6: idiographic vs nomothetic

Strength of nomothetic approach

Answer 110

strength of the nomothetic approach is that it follows the scientific approach, as it makes use of experimental (quantitative) methods and allows for replication to examine the reliability of findings.
For example, when cognitive psychologists model working memory, constituent parts of the target behaviour can be reliably measured through the use of operationalised categories, thus increasing the internal validity of the findings .
Since the researchers will take efforts to avoid and reduce bias, the findings have greater scientific creditability due to their validity and reliability. The focus on objectively collecting reliable data has led to certain ‘norms’ or standards of behaviour to be established, such as the average IQ score being 100. Such norms act as a good baseline comparison for intellectual abilities and mental disorders.
This scientific and quantifiable approach has helped the academic subject of Psychology establish itself as a valid scientific discipline and has led to the development of the scientific understanding of human behaviour.

Question 111

6: idiographic vs nomothetic

Limitation of the nomothetic approach

Answer 111

limitation of the nomothetic approach is that whilst it can predict the behaviour of the group it cannot predict the behaviour of an individual due to its fixation on quantitative data and statistical analysis.
For example, Milgram’s research found that 65% of participants obeyed an authority figure and inflicted a 450-volt electric shock because they were ordered to do so. However, the results fail to
E provide an explanation of why each person obeyed, and there may have been very different circumstances that led to the obedience found in each participant.
Idiographic researchers would argue that Milgram’s research only allows us to make predictions on groups and not on individuals and therefore the nomothetic approach only provides a superficial understanding of human behaviour.
This limits the validity of the approach, because group findings are not always representative of the individual, and as Allport (1937) argues that it is only by fully understanding an individual, that we can make accurate predictions on individual behaviour.

Question 112

6: idiographic vs nomothetic

Strength of the idiographic approach

Answer 112

strength of the idiographic approach in utilising the case study method is that it can be a powerful tool for evaluating psychological theories.
For example, the case study of HM exposed a limitation of the Multi-Store Model of Memory, by providing evidence that our LTM comprises of more than one type of LTM as he was able to gain new procedural memories but not new episodic or semantic memories.
This contradicted a central component of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model because the model suggests there is only one single unitary store of long-term memory which cannot be the case. This led to Tulving developing the three distinct types of LTM stores.
Consequently, the idiographic approach can add validity to psychological theories, as a single case study can generate further research into a particular phenomenon e.g. memory, which can contribute to the development of new theories that further our understanding of human behaviour.

Question 113

6: idiographic vs nomothetic

Limitation of idiographic approach

Answer 113

A of the idiographic approach is that it is less scientific than the nomothetic approach.
For example, the emphasis on in-depth data collection and the difficulties in arriving at justifiable generalisations contradicts the central purpose of any mature science which is to explain the most variations in the fewest possible terms, so that behaviour can be predicted and ultimately controlled. Research practices that do not address these goals can seem scientifically pointless.
As a result, the idiographic approach is unable to produce general laws or predictions about human behaviour and that severely limits its usefulness as a source of practical knowledge about the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders.
Idiographic researchers respond to these criticisms by emphasising the evidence-based nature of their descriptions and conclusions, and the critical awareness embedded in research techniques.
Taken together, this suggests that the of research findings may be stronger by a combination of both approaches.

Question 114

7: ethics

Give examples of unethical studies?

Answer 114

Milrams shock experiment
Stanford prisiomers experiment
Watson’s Little Albert
The Monster study: 20 orphans, one group told were given positive feedback on their stutter, other group received negitive feedback. Nat became withdrawn, anxious.

Question 115

7: ethics

What are the ethical considerations in studies?

Answer 115

• The potential for consequences to individuals
• Potential for wider groups eg: findings effect the target population
• Consequences for social policy Eg: funding

Question 116

7: ethics

What’s the link between pyschologicql research and socially sensitive research?

Answer 116

All psychological research has potential ethical considerations, but especially socially-sensitive research

Question 117

7: ethics

What is socially-sensitive research

Answer 117

Defined by Sieber and Stanley.
Studies with the potential consequences either directly for ppts in research or for the class of individuals represented by the research

Question 118

7: ethics

What are the British psychological society guidelines

Answer 118

respect
-competence
-responsibility
-integrity

Question 119

7: ethics

What ethical issues can arise if one breaches BPS guidelines

Answer 119

privacy
-confidentiality
-valid methodology
-deception
- Informed consent
-Equitable treatment
- Scientific freedom
-Ownership of data
-Values and the risk/benefit ratio.

Question 120

7: ethics

What ethical issues can arise if one breaches BPS guidelines

Answer 120

privacy
-confidentiality
-valid methodology
-deception
- Informed consent
-Equitable treatment
- Scientific freedom
-Ownership of data
-Values and the risk/benefit ratio.

Question 121

7: ethics

Describe Sieber and Stanley’s key recommendations to address ethical issues assossiated with socially sensitive research

Answer 121

1) Awareness of potential consequences: researchers aware of this with their work for ppts, groups or populations, that the research concerns and should consider how the findings might be misused or misinterpreted in ways that can harm specific groups
2) Collaboration with targeted groups: researchers should work closely with group members who may be affected by this research to ensure research is respectful and sensitive to the needs of these groups
3) Careful framing of research questions: the way research questions are framed can influence interpretation and impact of research, they recommend researchers carefully consider how questions are posed to avoid reinforcing stereotypes or contribute to stigma
4) Ethical reflexivity: researchers could continually reflect on the ethical considerations of their work. So follow ethical guidelines ans think critically about the broader social impact of the research
5) Dissemination of findings: researchers should consider how they disseminate their findings, particularly in terms of how their findings might be used by others, they should strive to ensure that the dissemination doesn’t contribute to harm, misinterpretation or misuse of the research

Question 122

7: ethics

Strengths of ethics

Question 123

7: ethics

Limitations of ethics