Paper 2: Topic 5: Approaches Flashcards
Who’s the Father of Pschology
Wilhelm Wundt
When and what was the name of Wundts first book
1873
‘Principles of Physiological Pyschology’
When and where did Wundt open his first Pyschology labatory
1879
Leipzing, Germany
What types of procedures did Wundt use to separate Pyschology from the roots of Pyschology
-Controlled
-standardised: same stimuli and instructions eg; ticking metronome
-objective
Who used introspection to investigate the human mind and how
Wundt ask people to focus on an everyday object and look inwards noticing sensations and feelings and images
Introspection - process in which a person examines their inner world, by consciously observing their thoughts and emotion (cognitive processes) when presented with a stimulus and describe them
-controlled the environment, including the stimuli like a ticking metronome and tasks (e.g. a description of their perception or emotions - systematic reporting of the experience of object)
-Reflection on sensations, feelings and images
-focus on being objective
-Breaking thoughts about an object down into separate elements - structuralism
-Systematic reporting of an experience of object
Who used structuralism to investigate the human mind and what is it
used scientific methods to study human consequences by breaking its structure down into smaller components
Developed introspection
Wundt isolated conscious thoughts into basic structures of thoughts, processes and images eg: perceptions and sensations
What happened in 1900
Freud propsed the psychodynamic approach. He highlighted the importance of the unconscious mind on behaviour and developed his own therapy called psychoanalysis
What happened in 1879
Wundt opened the 1st experimental Pyschology lab in Germany. So Pyschology began to emerge as its own discipline. Before this Pyschology was regarded as an experimental branch in philosophy
What happened in 1913
Watson and Skinner established the behaviourist approach.
They criticised Freud and Wundt, arguing the true scientific Pyschology should restrict itself to studying phenomena and can be directly observed and measured.
They believed that all behaviour is learnt
What happened in the 1950’s
Rogers and Maslow developed the humanistic approach. They rejected the views put forward by behavioursit and pyschodynamic approaches and emphasised the importance of free will by attempting to understand the whole person
What happened in the 1960s
Cognitive approach emerged with introduction of the computer.
It’s interested in studying mental processes; cognitive psychologists believe that we can make inferences about how the mind works based on results from laboratory experiments
What happened in 1980s
Biological approach began to surface as the dominant approach in Pyschology. Due to advances in technology eg: brain scans to increase psychologists understanding of the function of the human brain
What happened in 2000’s
Cognitive neuroscience has emerged, which brings together the biological and cognitive approaches. Investigates how biological structures influence mental states
Strengths and limitations of Wundt
Limit:
P: introspection was subjective and lacks scientific rigour of today
Eg: self report method where ppts report their own mental processes. Can represent individual bias as ppts could report their unconscious thoughts.
Ex: makes it harder to establish meaningful laws of science so can be seen as naïve as it’s not empirical so would t meet scientific standards of psychology today
L: lowers the validity
Strength:
P: methodologies attempted to be scientific as he used standardised procedures in controlled lab experiments
Eg: recorded reaction times in a systematic way to prevent stimuli and introspection
Ex: means all ppts could be tested in the same way to check for reliability of findings
L: paved the way for psychology as a science with the reliance on the experimental method
The emergaence of Pyschology as a science
-Wundt known as ‘the father of psychology’ – moved from philosophical roots to controlled research.
-Set up the first psychology laboratory in Liepzig, Germany in 1870s.
- Promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes.
- Introspection – systematic analysis of own conscious experience of a stimulus.
- An experience was analysed in terms of its component parts e.g. sensations, emotional reaction etc.
-His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes e.g. by cognitive psychologists.
Define the behaviours approach’s key assumptions
- Psychologists should only study observable, quantifiable behaviour.
- All behaviour can be reduced down to a stimulus response link
- Humans are no different from animals and arent more complex so research on animal behaviour is directly relevant to humans.
- Scientific methodology, behaviour is measured in highly controlled lab experiments, objectivity and control
- When born our mid is a blank slate (tabula rasa), all behaviour is learnt from the environment through CC and OC
Describe the behaviourist approach
A learning approach that suggests that all behaviour is acquired and maintained through classical and operant conditioning and all children are born as “tabulae rasae” (blank slates), learning through their interactions with their environment through a stimulus-response link
concerned with behaviour that can be observed and measured through objective lab experiments
Who proposed classical conditioning and what is it
Pavlov
a type of learning through association in which
an environmental unconditioned stimulus is paired with an uncontrolled response. through conditioning the unconditioned stimulus is consistently paired with the neutral stimulus . The neutral stimulus produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus so now the response is conditioned
How did Pavlov test the theory of classical conditioning
using dogs as experimental subjects
conditioned to associate the sound of a bell (NS) with food (UCS) so dogs producing a salivation response (CR) at the sound of a bell (CS), even when no food was present
demonstrated that repeated exposure to an event leads to a learned and uncontrollable behaviour
REMEMBER TO STATE THE STIMULUS AND RESPONSE KEY WORDS IN YOUR ANSWER
Who proposed operant conditioning and what is it
Skinner suggested that behaviour is the result of learning through the consequences of our actions
A form of learning by direct consequences for behaviour, whether that be negitive and positive reinforcement (consequences that increase behaviour) or punishment (consequences that decrease behaviour).
Describe Skimmers research into his operant conditioning theory
created the Skinner box to examine operant conditioning in rats and pigeons as experimental subjects
The animal would move around the cage, and when it pressed the lever (by accident), it would be rewarded with a food pellet.
The animal would learn, through positive reinforcement, that each time it pressed the lever, it
would be rewarded with food so it learnt a new voluntary behaviour which is repeated to receive
the reward again.
If they pressed the other lever, they would be shocked. So press the other lever for the shock to be turning off. Increasing the frequency of pressing lever A
Shock -> behaviour -> turn shock off by pressing lever
Whereas punishment:
Behaviour -> shock
What are the 3 types of reinforcement proposed by Skinner will affect our behaviour
1) positive reinforcement – when a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence (reward) and is more
likely to be repeated;
2) negative reinforcement – when a behaviour is followed by the removal of an adverse stimuli and
is more likely to be repeated;
3) punishment – when a behaviour is followed by an unpleasant consequence and is less likely to be repeated
** dont confuse negative reinforcement and punishment. negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant consequent which makes a behaviour MORE likely to be repeated; whereas, punishment makes a behaviour LESS likely to be repeated**
Evaluate the behaviourist approach
Strength:
P: focuses on the measurement of observable characteristics. the method of data collection used is systematic, reliable and objective, so it plays a role in establishing psychology as a credible scientific discipline.
Limitation:
P: research used to support the behaviourist approach has been conducted on animals as experimental subjects.
Eg: They believed learning processes in humans and animals are very similar; Pavlov conducted research using dogs (learning through assossiation) and Skinner used rats and pigeons (learning through consequences)
Ex: However, many consider using animals in experiments to be unethical, In Skinner’s box, the rats were shocked when they didn’t perform a certain behaviour. Although, Using animals in research gives experimenters more control over the process, without demand characteristics or individual differences influencing findings.
L: As a result, caution must be taken when extrapolating and generalising the findings of this research to humans
Limit:
P: critised for its limited view regarding origins of behaviour and being to reductionist
Eg: behaviourist believe every behaviour is simplified down to a stimulus-response link. This ignores explanations like the role of cognition, emotion and biological factors influencing behaviour
Ex: Skinner countered this by saying for behaviour to be investigated scientifically, it had to be directly measurable and observable which cognitions are not.
L: he argued operant conditioning principles explain even the most complex of human interactions
Does the behavioural approach fall on the nature or nurture side of the nature v nurture debate
Suggets that all behaviour is learned, it falls on the nurture side
In which our experiences and surroundings shape our behaviour directly rather than any internal or biological factors.
human mind as a tabula rasa (blank slate) suggesting that at birth the mind is blank and throughout life, the slate is filled while behaviour is shaped through learning
Define environmental determinism in behavioural approach
behaviourists believe that behaviour is controlled by a stimulusresponse link, as in classical conditioning, is an example of environmental determinism.
argue humans have little choice in their behaviour, and our behaviour is simply the product of environmental learning
Define social learning theory
Based on the idea of observational learning: that learning occurs through the observation and imitation of behaviour performed by role models, who model behaviour in a social environment.
Development of the reductionist behaviourist approach of stimulus response link, SLT recognises mediational processes:
stimulus -> internal mediational processes -> response
• For indirect learning to occur, an individual must observe the behaviour of others, the may imitate this behaviour, but only if the consequences are positve.
• If they observe the model being rewarded they are likely to themselves, imitate this behaviour (vicarious reinforcement).
People are more likely to imitate the behaviour of models that they identify with
- A person becomes a model if they are seen to possess characteristics that the observer has or wishes to have. evidence, from Shutts et al., 2010, to suggest
that for children, the age and gender similarity to models is an important determinant of imitation. This cognitive appraisal process clearly distinguishes SLT from the more deterministic behaviourist approach
• Mediational processes: mental event that determines whether an individual perceives a behaviour as being worth imitating. 4 distinct mediational processes are: attention, retention, production and motivation
Who proposed Social Learnimg Theory
Bandura
he believed that observational learning,
which he called modelling, is the most important process in human learning
How is SLT differnt to other behaviourist theories
Development of reductionist behaviourist approach of the stimulus response link, takes into the account the role of mediational processes (thoughts).
According to Bandura, for SLT to take place, a person will form a mental representation of the behaviour and weigh up the pros and cons of being rewarded, before copying the behaviour. If the pros outweigh the cons, then they will imitate the observed behaviour
Desiree Bandura, Ross and Ross Bobo doll experiment
Aim: investigate whether aggression can be learned through social learning theory principles
Method: 72 children (36 male and 36 female) aged between 3 and 6 years old were put into one of three
groups for 10 minutes:
1) Aggressive model – the child played in a room while an adult hit and shouted at a “Bobo doll”: a plastic
inflatable toy doll which was heavy at the bottom and wobbled when hit. This group was further subdivided by the gender of child and the adult model
2) Non-aggressive model – the child played in a room while an adult played quietly with a construction set.
This group was further sub-divided once again by the gender of the child and the adult model, creating
another four conditions
3) Control group – the child did not see a model
The children were deliberately frustrated by being taken into another room where they were told that they
could not play with any toys. Then, they were placed alone in a room with a range of aggressive toys
(mallet, gun) and non-aggressive toys (dolls, crayons) and the Bobo doll for twenty minutes whilst being
observed
Results: Children who saw the aggressive model produced more aggressive acts than those in either of the
other two groups. Boys imitated same-sex models more than girls. Girls imitated more physical aggression
if they saw male models, and more verbal aggression if they saw female models.
Conclusion: Aggressive behaviour can be learned, in children, through observation and imitation of a
model.
8/16 marker hasn’t come up before:
Strengths and limits of social learning theory
Limit:
P: This explanation has been criticised for underestimating the influences of biological factors in explaining behaviour.
Eg: In Bandura’s Bobo doll study, a consistent finding was that boys were all more aggressive than girls, despite them all observing the same models perform that behaviour.
biological favours suggest that individuals may behave more aggressively due to hormone imbalances including higher levels of testosterone rather than observational learning
Or behave more anxiously due to low levels of serotonin.
Ex: this is a more likely explaination in cases where there’s no established role model for a person to observe and imitate the behaviours of.
L: SLT isn’t a full explaination to real life human hevaiour so lacks validity so should be used in conjunction with other approaches like the biological approach
Limitation:
P: Bandura ideas were developed based on children in lab settings so suggests methodological issues.
Eg: Bobo dolly study, children acted in an aggressive way towards the doll as they thought that’s what was expected of them rather than then genuine t learning a new behaviour.
Ex: suggests demand charectarisitcs affected children’s behaviour as they may have Pisces up on environmental cues that’s er measuring aggression resulting to them adjusting their behaviour. This is due to it being an artificial task and being in a strictly controlled lab experiment
L: limits the internal validity of the findings so affects the accuracy of the theory and lowers external validity so generalise the study to real life situations of children learning behaviours with caution
Strength:
s its plentiful research support. For example, Fox and Bailenson (2009) found that
humans were more likely to imitate computer-generated ‘virtual humans’ who were similar to
themselves; Rushton and Campbell (1977) found that same-sex modelling significantly increased the
number of female observers who agreed to, and then actually did, donate blood; and Myers (2015) confirmed the importance of vicarious learning for the effectiveness of workplace teams. These studies
demonstrate support for different aspects of SLT, including modelling and vicarious reinforcement and the importance of mediatiomal processes,
adding credibility to the key principles of this theory
How does Bandura take a nomothetic approach in SLT
his research with the infamous Bobo doll, and later work with other researchers
investigating the role of vicarious learning in shaping behaviour, take a nomothetic approach as he
attempts to generate general laws of behaviour which can be widely applied.
Define cognitive approach
A learning approach which likens the human mind to a computer, with internal mental processes turning an input to an output. This approach suggests studying these internal processes by inference is the key to understanding human psychology.
Focuses on the examination of internal mental processes such as perception,
memory, attention and consciousness. Since these processes are internal and cannot be studied directly, their operation must be inferred from the observation and measurement of visible human behaviour.
What are the 5 assumptions of SLT
-learning through others
-importance of environmental and cognitive factors
-role models
-vicarious reinforcement
-mediational processes
Define learning through others as an assumption of SLT
Bandura believed people learn through observation, modelling and imitation of others
Define importance of environmental and cognitive factors as an assumption of SLT
Bandura believe there’s important mental processes that occur between stimulus and response
SLT forms a bridge between traditional behaviours and cognitive approach
Define role models as an assumption of SLT
Learning occurs through observation of role models
More likely to imitate them if they identify with them
Modelling occurs when the observer imitates a role model
A person becomes a model if they are seen to possess characteristics that the observer have, or wishes to have. evidence: Shutts et al., 2010, to suggest that for children, the age and gender similarity to models is an important determinant of imitation.
Define vicarious reinforcement as an assumption of SLT
If they observe the role model being rewarded they are likely to themselves, imitate this behaviour
Learning occurs:
-directly through operant and classical conditioning
-Indirectly though vicarious reinforcement
For indirect learning to occur, an individual must observe the behaviour of others, the may imitate this behaviour, but only if the consequences of this behaviour seems to be positve
Define mediational processes as an assumption of SLT
the mental event that determines whether an individual perceives a behaviour as being worth imitating.
4 distinct mediational processes are: attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation
Learning: attention and retention
Performing: motor reproduction and motivation
Define cognitive approach
A learning approach which likens the human mind to a computer, with internal mental processes turning an input to an output. It suggests studying these internal processes by inference is the key to understanding human psychology.
Focuses on the examination of internal mental processes such as perception,
memory, attention and consciousness by inferring them from observation and measurement of visible human behaviour.
It’s extended from the stimulus response proposed by behaviourist approach into:
Stimulus -> internal mental processes -> response
Concerned with how thinking shapes our behaviour and developed as a reaction.
5 examples of cognitions in the cognitive approach
1) importance of inferences
2) computer analogy
3) role of theoretical models
4) role of schemas on mental processes
5) cognitive neuroscience
Define importance of inferences as an example of the cognitive approach
Cogntiviists rely on lab experiments: objective methods
Mental internal processes are private and can’t be observed so are studied indirectly through inferences
Define computer analogy as an example of the cognitive approach
Thinks the human mind works like a computer, with internal mental processes turning an input to an output.
It’s an Information processing model
