Paper 2: Topic 5: Approaches Flashcards
- Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science
Who’s the Father of Pschology
Wilhelm Wundt
- Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science
When and what was the name of Wundts first book
1873
‘Principles of Physiological Pyschology’
- Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science
When and where did Wundt open his first Pyschology labatory
1879
Leipzing, Germany
- Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science
What types of procedures did Wundt use to separate Pyschology from the roots of Pyschology
-Controlled
-standardised: same stimuli and instructions eg; ticking metronome
-objective
- Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science
Who used introspection to investigate the human mind and how
Wundt ask people to focus on an everyday object and look inwards noticing sensations and feelings and images
Introspection - process in which a person examines their inner world, by consciously observing their thoughts and emotion (cognitive processes) when presented with a stimulus and describe them
-controlled the environment, including the stimuli like a ticking metronome and tasks (e.g. a description of their perception or emotions - systematic reporting of the experience of object)
-Reflection on sensations, feelings and images
-focus on being objective
-Breaking thoughts about an object down into separate elements - structuralism
-Systematic reporting of an experience of object
- Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science
Who used structuralism to investigate the human mind and what is it
used scientific methods to study human consequences by breaking its structure down into smaller components
Developed introspection
Wundt isolated conscious thoughts into basic structures of thoughts, processes and images eg: perceptions and sensations
What happened in 1900
Freud propsed the psychodynamic approach. He highlighted the importance of the unconscious mind on behaviour and developed his own therapy called psychoanalysis
What happened in 1879
Wundt opened the 1st experimental Pyschology lab in Germany. So Pyschology began to emerge as its own discipline. Before this Pyschology was regarded as an experimental branch in philosophy
What happened in 1913
Watson and Skinner established the behaviourist approach.
They criticised Freud and Wundt, arguing the true scientific Pyschology should restrict itself to studying phenomena and can be directly observed and measured.
They believed that all behaviour is learnt
What happened in the 1950’s
Rogers and Maslow developed the humanistic approach. They rejected the views put forward by behavioursit and pyschodynamic approaches and emphasised the importance of free will by attempting to understand the whole person
What happened in the 1960s
Cognitive approach emerged with introduction of the computer.
It’s interested in studying mental processes; cognitive psychologists believe that we can make inferences about how the mind works based on results from laboratory experiments
What happened in 1980s
Biological approach began to surface as the dominant approach in Pyschology. Due to advances in technology eg: brain scans to increase psychologists understanding of the function of the human brain
What happened in 2000’s
Cognitive neuroscience has emerged, which brings together the biological and cognitive approaches. Investigates how biological structures influence mental states
- Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science
Strengths of Wundt and emergence of science
P: A strength of Wilhelm Wundt’s contribution to psychology is that his research significantly shaped the future of the discipline, establishing it as a scientific field.
Eg: Wundt was the first to study human behavior scientifically using controlled and standardized methods, such as recording reaction times to stimuli, which enabled objective measurement of mental processes.
Ex: This approach was revolutionary at the time and laid the foundation for experimental psychology. By using controlled environments and standardized procedures, Wundt ensured experiments could be replicated and findings verified, a key element of the scientific method. His emphasis on measurement and control has influenced many subsequent studies, making psychology a rigorous academic discipline.
L: As a result of Wundt’s contributions, most universities now have psychology departments recognized for their scientific standards.
- Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science
Limitations of Wundt and emergence of science
P: A limitation of some aspects of Wundt’s work is that they were subjective and lacked the scientific rigor expected in modern psychological research.
Eg: Wundt relied heavily on introspection, where participants described their own conscious experiences. This method was inherently subjective, depending on individuals’ accuracy and honesty in reporting their mental processes.
Ex: Introspection is highly susceptible to bias, as participants’ reports could be influenced by personal beliefs and expectations, leading to inconsistent data. It also cannot measure unconscious processes, which are now known to play a major role in cognition. For example, a participant might struggle to accurately describe their thought process during rapid decision-making, limiting the method’s reliability. Wundt’s methods are now considered naïve, as modern psychology favors more objective approaches like brain imaging and experimental manipulation. This shift reflects the advancement of psychological science toward more reliable methods.
L: The transition from Wundt’s subjective methods to modern scientific approaches underscores the importance of methodological improvements in advancing the understanding of the human mind.
P: A limitation of psychology’s claim to be a science is that not all approaches within the discipline follow scientific methods.
Eg: The humanistic approach focuses on individual experiences rather than general laws, while the psychodynamic approach relies on case studies with unrepresentative samples, lacking objectivity.
Ex: Humanistic psychology emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization, rejecting generalizable laws, while psychodynamic psychology, rooted in Freud’s theories, relies on case studies that are difficult to replicate and prone to researcher bias. Psychological studies also face issues like social desirability bias and demand characteristics, where participants alter behavior to fit expectations, reducing objectivity and reliability.
L: This debate highlights the tension between scientific rigor and the need to understand the complexity of human experiences. Despite these limitations, the diversity of approaches enriches psychology, offering varied methods for understanding human behavior.
- Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science
The emergaence of Pyschology as a science
-Wundt known as ‘the father of psychology’ – moved from philosophical roots to controlled research.
-Set up the first psychology laboratory in Liepzig, Germany in 1870s.
- Promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes.
- Introspection – systematic analysis of own conscious experience of a stimulus.
- An experience was analysed in terms of its component parts e.g. sensations, emotional reaction etc.
-His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes e.g. by cognitive psychologists.
- Behaviourist Approach
Define the behaviours approach’s key assumptions
- Psychologists should only study observable, quantifiable behaviour.
- All behaviour can be reduced down to a stimulus response link
- Humans are no different from animals and arent more complex so research on animal behaviour is directly relevant to humans.
- Scientific methodology, behaviour is measured in highly controlled lab experiments, objectivity and control
- When born our mid is a blank slate (tabula rasa), all behaviour is learnt from the environment through CC and OC
- Behaviourist Approach
Describe the behaviourist approach
A learning approach that suggests that all behaviour is acquired and maintained through classical and operant conditioning and all children are born as “tabulae rasae” (blank slates), learning through their interactions with their environment through a stimulus-response link
concerned with behaviour that can be observed and measured through objective lab experiments
- Behaviourist Approach
Who proposed classical conditioning and what is it
Pavlov
a type of learning through association in which
an environmental unconditioned stimulus is paired with an uncontrolled response. through conditioning the unconditioned stimulus is consistently paired with the neutral stimulus . The neutral stimulus produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus so now the response is conditioned
- Behaviourist Approach
How did Pavlov test the theory of classical conditioning
using dogs as experimental subjects
conditioned to associate the sound of a bell (NS) with food (UCS) so dogs producing a salivation response (CR) at the sound of a bell (CS), even when no food was present
demonstrated that repeated exposure to an event leads to a learned and uncontrollable behaviour
REMEMBER TO STATE THE STIMULUS AND RESPONSE KEY WORDS IN YOUR ANSWER
- Behaviourist Approach
Who proposed operant conditioning and what is it
Skinner suggested that behaviour is the result of learning through the consequences of our actions
A form of learning by direct consequences for behaviour, whether that be negitive and positive reinforcement (consequences that increase behaviour) or punishment (consequences that decrease behaviour).
- Behaviourist Approach
Describe Skimmers research into his operant conditioning theory
created the Skinner box to examine operant conditioning in rats and pigeons as experimental subjects
The animal would move around the cage, and when it pressed the lever (by accident), it would be rewarded with a food pellet.
The animal would learn, through positive reinforcement, that each time it pressed the lever, it
would be rewarded with food so it learnt a new voluntary behaviour which is repeated to receive
the reward again.
If they pressed the other lever, they would be shocked. So press the other lever for the shock to be turning off. Increasing the frequency of pressing lever A
Shock -> behaviour -> turn shock off by pressing lever
Whereas punishment:
Behaviour -> shock
- Behaviourist Approach
What are the 3 types of reinforcement proposed by Skinner will affect our behaviour
1) positive reinforcement – when a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence (reward) and is more
likely to be repeated;
2) negative reinforcement – when a behaviour is followed by the removal of an adverse stimuli and
is more likely to be repeated;
3) punishment – when a behaviour is followed by an unpleasant consequence and is less likely to be repeated
** dont confuse negative reinforcement and punishment. negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant consequent which makes a behaviour MORE likely to be repeated; whereas, punishment makes a behaviour LESS likely to be repeated**
- Behaviourist Approach
Does the behavioural approach fall on the nature or nurture side of the nature v nurture debate
Suggets that all behaviour is learned, it falls on the nurture side.
In which our experiences and surroundings shape our behaviour directly rather than any internal or biological factors.
human mind as a tabula rasa (blank slate) suggesting that at birth the mind is blank and throughout life, the slate is filled while behaviour is shaped through learning
- Behaviourist Approach
Define environmental determinism in behavioural approach
behaviourists believe that behaviour is controlled by a stimulusresponse link, as in classical conditioning, is an example of environmental determinism.
argue humans have little choice in their behaviour, and our behaviour is simply the product of environmental learning
- Behaviourist Approach
Strength of behaviourist approach
P: A strength of the behaviourist approach is its strong explanatory power, which has advanced understanding and treatment of human behavior.
Eg: Phobias are thought to develop through classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus becomes linked to an unpleasant experience. Operant conditioning explains how behaviors like gambling addiction are maintained through reinforcement.
Ex: This has led to effective therapies like systematic desensitization, which reduces phobic reactions through gradual exposure and relaxation, and token economies, used to reinforce positive behavior in offender management and mental health care.
L: This highlights the behaviourist approach’s real-world impact in understanding and treating behavior, improving mental health outcomes.
- Behaviourist Approach
Limitations of behaviourist approach
P: A limitation of classical and operant conditioning is the reliance on animal research, which raises concerns about generalizing findings to human behavior.
Eg: Pavlov’s and Skinner’s experiments with animals demonstrated conditioning principles, but human brains, especially the prefrontal cortex, are more complex, allowing higher-order thinking and social context to influence behavior.
Ex: Mechanical responses from animal research may not fully explain human learning. While conditioning offers useful insights, integrating cognitive and social psychology provides a more complete understanding of behavior.
L: This highlights the need to combine conditioning principles with insights from other psychological approaches for a more holistic view of human learning.
P: A limitation of the behaviourist approach is its reductionist view, which oversimplifies human behavior.
Eg: Behaviourists argue behavior stems from stimulus-response links, ignoring internal processes like cognition, emotions, and biological factors. Cognitive psychologists emphasize mental processes, while biological psychologists highlight genetic and neurochemical influences.
Ex: Skinner argued behavior must be observable to be scientific, but this neglects internal influences on behavior. Complex behaviors like decision-making and social interactions cannot be fully explained by conditioning alone.
L: This underscores the need for a broader approach that combines behavioral, cognitive, and biological perspectives to better explain human behavior.
- SLT
Define social learning theory
Based on the idea of observational learning: that learning occurs through the observation and imitation of behaviour performed by role models, who model behaviour in a social environment.
Development of the reductionist behaviourist approach of stimulus response link, SLT recognises mediational processes:
stimulus -> internal mediational processes -> response
• For indirect learning to occur, an individual must observe the behaviour of others, the may imitate this behaviour, but only if the consequences are positve.
• If they observe the model being rewarded they are likely to themselves, imitate this behaviour (vicarious reinforcement).
People are more likely to imitate the behaviour of models that they identify with
- A person becomes a model if they are seen to possess characteristics that the observer has or wishes to have. evidence, from Shutts et al., 2010, to suggest
that for children, the age and gender similarity to models is an important determinant of imitation. This cognitive appraisal process clearly distinguishes SLT from the more deterministic behaviourist approach
• Mediational processes: mental event that determines whether an individual perceives a behaviour as being worth imitating. 4 distinct mediational processes are: attention, retention, production and motivation
- SLT
Who proposed Social Learnimg Theory
Bandura
he believed that observational learning,
which he called modelling, is the most important process in human learning
- SLT
How is SLT differnt to other behaviourist theories
Development of reductionist behaviourist approach of the stimulus response link, takes into the account the role of mediational processes (thoughts).
According to Bandura, for SLT to take place, a person will form a mental representation of the behaviour and weigh up the pros and cons of being rewarded, before copying the behaviour. If the pros outweigh the cons, then they will imitate the observed behaviour
- SLT
Desiree Bandura, Ross and Ross Bobo doll experiment
Aim: investigate whether aggression can be learned through social learning theory principles
Method: 72 children (36 male and 36 female) aged between 3 and 6 years old were put into one of three
groups for 10 minutes:
1) Aggressive model – the child played in a room while an adult hit and shouted at a “Bobo doll”: a plastic
inflatable toy doll which was heavy at the bottom and wobbled when hit. This group was further subdivided by the gender of child and the adult model
2) Non-aggressive model – the child played in a room while an adult played quietly with a construction set.
This group was further sub-divided once again by the gender of the child and the adult model, creating
another four conditions
3) Control group – the child did not see a model
The children were deliberately frustrated by being taken into another room where they were told that they
could not play with any toys. Then, they were placed alone in a room with a range of aggressive toys
(mallet, gun) and non-aggressive toys (dolls, crayons) and the Bobo doll for twenty minutes whilst being
observed
Results: Children who saw the aggressive model produced more aggressive acts than those in either of the
other two groups. Boys imitated same-sex models more than girls. Girls imitated more physical aggression
if they saw male models, and more verbal aggression if they saw female models.
Conclusion: Aggressive behaviour can be learned, in children, through observation and imitation of a
model.
- SLT
How does Bandura take a nomothetic approach in SLT
his research with the infamous Bobo doll, and later work with other researchers
investigating the role of vicarious learning in shaping behaviour, take a nomothetic approach as he
attempts to generate general laws of behaviour which can be widely applied.
- SLT
What are the 5 assumptions of SLT
-learning through others
-importance of environmental and cognitive factors
-role models
-vicarious reinforcement
-mediational processes
- SLT
Define learning through others as an assumption of SLT
Bandura believed people learn through observation, modelling and imitation of others
- SLT
Define importance of environmental and cognitive factors as an assumption of SLT
Bandura believe there’s important mental processes that occur between stimulus and response
SLT forms a bridge between traditional behaviours and cognitive approach
- SLT
8/16 marker hasn’t come up before:
Strengths of social learning theory
A strength of the key concept of the importance of similarity of role models is its plentiful research support.
Fox and Bailenson (2009) found that humans were more likely to imitate computer-generated ‘virtual humans’ who were similar to themselves and Rushton and Campbell (1977) found that same-sex modelling significantly increased the number of female observers who donated blood.
These studies demonstrate support for the idea that we are more likely to model behaviour when the role model is more identifiable with ourselves.
This empirical evidence adds validity to a key principle of this theory.
- SLT
8/16 marker hasn’t come up before:
Limitations of social learning theory
P: A limitation of social learning theory (SLT) is its failure to account for biological influences on behavior.
Eg: Dabbs (1995) found that high testosterone levels can increase aggression, and Caspi et al. (2002) linked the MAOA gene to aggressive behavior, showing that biology plays a significant role.
Ex: This is evident when aggressive behavior occurs without a clear role model, suggesting biological influences beyond observational learning. Combining SLT with biological perspectives would provide a more complete understanding of behavior.
L: SLT’s inability to explain biological factors limits its explanatory power, highlighting the need for a more integrative approach.
P: A limitation of Bandura’s research is that it has been criticized for being artificial and lacking real-world relevance.
Eg: The controlled lab setting may have influenced participants’ behavior. For example, children might have acted aggressively toward the Bobo doll due to demand characteristics rather than genuine learning.
Ex: Noble (1975) reported a child saying, “Look, Mummy, there’s the doll we have to hit!”—suggesting that the children responded to perceived expectations rather than true observational learning.
L: The artificial environment and demand characteristics reduce the study’s internal validity and raise doubts about whether the findings apply to real-life settings.
- Cognitive approach
Define cognitive approach
A learning approach which likens the human mind to a computer, with internal mental processes turning an input to an output. It suggests studying these internal processes by inference is the key to understanding human psychology.
Focuses on the examination of internal mental processes such as perception,
memory, attention and consciousness by inferring them from observation and measurement of visible human behaviour.
It’s extended from the stimulus response proposed by behaviourist approach into:
Stimulus -> internal mental processes -> response
Concerned with how thinking shapes our behaviour and developed as a reaction.
- SLT
Define vicarious reinforcement as an assumption of SLT
If they observe the role model being rewarded they are likely to themselves, imitate this behaviour
Learning occurs:
-directly through operant and classical conditioning
-Indirectly though vicarious reinforcement
For indirect learning to occur, an individual must observe the behaviour of others, the may imitate this behaviour, but only if the consequences of this behaviour seems to be positve
- SLT
Define mediational processes as an assumption of SLT
the mental event that determines whether an individual perceives a behaviour as being worth imitating.
4 distinct mediational processes are: attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation
Learning: attention and retention
Performing: motor reproduction and motivation
- Cognitive approach
5 examples of cognitions in the cognitive approach
1) importance of inferences
2) computer analogy
3) role of theoretical models
4) role of schemas on mental processes
5) cognitive neuroscience
- Cognitive approach
Define importance of inferences as an example of the cognitive approach
Cogntiviists rely on lab experiments: objective methods
Mental internal processes are private and can’t be observed so are studied indirectly through inferences
- Cognitive approach
Define computer analogy as an example of the cognitive approach
Thinks the human mind works like a computer, with internal mental processes turning an input to an output.
It’s an Information processing model
- Cognitive approach
Define role of theoretical models as an example of the cognitive approach
Cognitive psychologists study internal processes through theoretical models as visual representations of concepts
Eg: multi-store model of memory and working memory model to understand memory
- Cognitive approach
Define role of schemas on mental processes as an example of the cognitive approach amd strengths and limitations
Schemas are mental cognitive frameworks based on previous information/experiences that allows us to interpret new information efficiently.
Schemas enable us to process lots of information quickly and this is useful as a sort of mental short-cut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
Schemas can distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors
They can also lead to stereotyping and therefore prejudice.
- Cognitive approach
Define cognitive neuroscience as an example of the cognitive approach
Term coined by Miller
Scientifically studies the info use of brain structure and activity on mental processes
Involves use of brain scanning tech eg: PET and fMRI scans to show how different parts of the brain become active in differnt cognitive activities and emotion
Tulving found episodic memory is stored in the right prefrontal cortex and semantic in the left
- Cognitive Approach
Define Imitation
A form of learning suggested by social learning theory, which proposes that people learn through copying the behaviour of a role model they identify
With
- Cognitive approach
Strengths of Cognitive Approach
P: A strength of the cognitive approach is its use of scientific and objective methods.
Eg: Controlled lab experiments, such as those supporting the multi-store model of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) and the working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974), allow researchers to isolate variables and establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Ex: Controlled conditions enhance the reliability and validity of findings. The use of brain imaging techniques like PET and MRI scans provides empirical evidence for cognitive processes, increasing the objectivity of results.
L: This emphasis on scientific methods strengthens the cognitive approach’s credibility and contribution to psychology as a rigorous scientific discipline.
P: A strength of the cognitive approach is its integration with neuroscience, improving understanding of brain-behavior relationships.
Eg: Cognitive neuroscience uses techniques like MRI and PET scans to study brain activity. Tulving et al. (1994) showed different brain regions are activated during episodic and semantic memory tasks.
Ex: This interdisciplinary approach links mental processes to brain function, bridging psychological theory and biological evidence.
L: The cognitive approach’s connection with neuroscience provides a more comprehensive understanding of the mind and brain.
- Cognitive approach
Limitation of Cognitive Approach
P: A limitation of the cognitive approach is its reliance on inference to understand mental processes.
Eg: Cognitive psychologists often infer memory processes from performance in recall tasks rather than directly observing them.
Ex: These inferences are based on theoretical assumptions, which may lead to subjective biases and flawed conclusions if the interpretations are incorrect.
L: This reliance on inference introduces uncertainty and subjectivity, limiting the accuracy of cognitive theories.
- Biological Approach
Define biological approach
Assumes all human behaviour has biological origin and states that to comprehend human behaviour fully, it’s necessary to understand internal biological structures and processes including genes, nervous system and neurochemistry and hormones
- Biological Approach
Define genetic explaination as part of the biological approach
Genes are passed from one gen to the next.
They carry info in the form of DNA in chromosomes, which carries instructions for characteristics
Genotype: a persons genetic makeup fixed from birth pairing of alleles for a specific trait
Phenotype: expression of their geens which lead to observable charectaristics of a person due to combined effect of genes and environment
Behaviour Geneticists study whether behavioural characteristics eg: intelligence + mental disorders are inherited the same way as physical characteristics are
Research used monozygotic twins who share 100% of their DNA and dizygotic twins who share 50%
Gottesman found MZ twins have a 48% concordance rate of developing schizophrenia compared to 17% for DZ twins.
McGuffin found if one identical has depression, there’s a 46% chance that the other twin will also. Suggesting a genetic component to illnesses like schizophrenia and depression
- Biological Approach
Define genetic explaination as part of the biological approach
Biological psychologists believe the structure of organs eg: brain, central nervous system, peripheral nervous system and endocrine system determine our behaviour.
The nervous system transmits messages through neurons. Human behaviour like eating (feeling hungry) and breathing.
Research’s shown differnt lobes of the brain are linked to general functions eg: parietal lobe is linked to the processing of sensory info
Case study Phineas Gage: lost his ability to inhibit antisocial behaviour after iron bar destroyed of his frontal cortex demon staring the influence of a biological structure on behaviour (inhibition)
- Biological Approach
Define influence of neurochemistry as part of the biological approach
role of chemicals in determinations behaviour.
At synapses, signals are sent between neurones by neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitter imbalance are assossiated with atypical behaviour eg: too much dopamine associates with schizophrenia
Crockett suggested abnormally low levels of serotonin is linked to aggressive behaviour indicating neurotransmitter is important in regulating behaviour and impulse control
Horomones are released into bloodstream and travel to target cells to be activated. Carre found high levels of testosterone are assossiated with defensiveness and territoriality when investigating ice hockey players behaviour
- Biological Approach
Define evolution and behaviour as part of the biological approach
Darwin’s natural selection ensures characteristics provide evolutionary advantages like survival and are passed from one gen to the next, whilst others which do not die out
Buss’s survey of heterosexual mate selection. Across 37 countries studied, he found men preferred good looks, youth and chastity and women prefer good financial prospects, industriousness and dependability. Suggests certain behaviours and traits have evolved as they promote better prospects for passing on genes
- Biological Approach
Strengths of Biological Approach
P: A strength of the biological approach is its reliance on scientific methods to investigate psychological phenomena.
Eg: Techniques like fMRI, PET scans, genetic testing, and biochemical analysis provide objective, quantifiable data. For instance, fMRI studies (e.g., Maguire et al., 2000) show how different brain areas are involved in cognitive tasks.
Ex: These methods enhance the reliability and validity of findings by offering objective measurements, reducing bias, and allowing replication, a cornerstone of scientific inquiry.
L: However, focusing solely on biological factors can lead to reductionism, overlooking environmental and psychological influences. A more holistic approach may be needed for a complete understanding of behavior.
P: A strength of the biological approach is its real-world applications.
Eg: Research on neurochemical activity has led to psychoactive drugs, such as SSRIs, used to treat mental disorders like depression.
Ex: These treatments have improved quality of life for many patients and provided a medical model of mental health, reducing stigma and offering an explanation for mental illness.
L: However, about 30% of patients do not respond to antidepressants, suggesting that other factors beyond biological influences play a role in mental disorders. This indicates the need to integrate biological with other approaches for a comprehensive understanding of mental health.
- Biological Approach
Limitations of Biological Approach
P: A limitation of the biological approach is that causation is often implied but cannot be established due to the correlational nature of many studies.
Eg: For example, Juckel et al. (2006) found reduced activity in the ventral striatum in individuals with schizophrenia, which is associated with negative symptoms like avolition.
Ex: While this study shows a correlation between brain activity and behavior, it does not prove that reduced brain activity causes the behavior or vice versa. This limits the ability to establish causal relationships.
L: This reliance on correlational data raises concerns about the validity of conclusions and suggests that other factors, such as environmental or psychological influences, must also be considered for a more comprehensive understanding.
- Psychodynamic Approach
Define psychodynamic approach
Freud proposed the notion of the unconscious
The three main assumptions: personality has a discernible structure (ID, ego, superego), that it’s constructed by the passage through psychosexual stages of development throughout infancy and adolescence, the unconscious conflicts in the personality are mediated by defence mechanisms
- Psychodynamic Approach
Describe the role of the unconscious as part of the psychodynamic approach
Parts of the mind that are inaccessible to conscious awareness
Iceberg metaphor to explain this:
Consciousness: small part we’re aware of (top of ice berg)
Unconscious: larger part of the human mind (beneath the surface) we’re not directly aware of or able to access it at will
Traumatic memories from childhood are repressed in the unconscious mind hidden from conscious awareness
But aren’t truely forgotten and can be explored through psychoanalysis
Unconcouis mind reveals itself in dreams, fantasies and Freudian slips
- Psychodynamic Approach
Describe the structure of the personality: ID, ego and superego as part of the psychodynamic approach
personality is made up of 3 parts; the id, ego and superego.
Id: erotic energy. Governed by pleasure principle. Consists of drives and seeks nothing but pleasure and gratification. Presented at birth. Focuses on self (selfish), irrational and emotional, deals with feelings
and needs
unconscious part of the mind
Ego: governed by reality principle. Tasked with taming the Id and balancing the demands of the superego. Arises in response to control of others especially parents during the anal stage of development around 2 years old. Rational, balancing the id and superego. conscious part of the mind.
Superego: governed by morality principle. Our sense of right and wrong. Characterised by the ‘inner voice’ telling us we’ve crossed into the boundaries of unacceptable behaviour. The internalised parent and develops in response to parental discipline at 5 years old. acts as the conscience or
moral guide. unconscious part of the mind
- Psychodynamic Approach
Describe defence mechanisms as part of the psychodynamic approach
Strategies employed by the ego to protect the mind from feelings that may be too overwhelming by coping with conflicting demands of the demanding superego and id. Ego works by distorting reality so individual can continue with everyday life without unpleasant feelings dominating their conscious awareness.
1)Repression: occurs when traumatic or distressing memory is forced out of conscious awareness and into the unconscious mind
2) Denial: involves a refusal to accept the reality of a situation, acting as though nothing distressing has happened
3) displacement: feelings towards a target individual can’t be expressed directly and is transferred onto something/one else
- Psychodynamic Approach
define denial
A defence mechanism utilised by the unconscious mind. This is the complete refusal to acknowledge the occurrence of an event, in an attempt to prevent harm.
- Psychodynamic Approach
define displacement
A defence mechanism utilised by the unconscious mind. This mechanism works by substituting the real target of overwhelming emotions with a (usually) defenceless target. This allows for a cathartic release of emotions that would not be possible with the original target.
- Psychodynamic Approach
define repression
A defence mechanism utilised by the unconscious mind. This mechanism prevents disturbing thoughts/memories reaching the conscious mind, in an attempt to prevent harm.
- Psychodynamic Approach
Describe psychosexual stages as part of the psychodynamic approach
Oral stage:
0-2 years
Focus: mouth
Infant experiences pleasure through their mouth, sucking and biting
If unresolved: oral fixation eg: smoking and nail-biting
Anal:
2-3 years
Focus: anus
Child becomes aware of reality principle (ego develops) imposed by parents. Must undergo potty training to control bowel movements
If unresolved: anal fixation in 2 ways: 1) anal retentive: obsessive perfectionist 2) anal expulsive: messy and thoughtless
Phallic
3-6 years
Focus: genitals
Oedipus and electra complex infant boys and girls must overcome their unconscious sexual desire for their mother and father by identifying with the other parent. Superego develops
If unresolved: phallic fixation or phallic personal might manifest in reckless and narcissistic behaviours
Latent stage:
6 years to puberty
Focus: hidden
Sexual energy goes from driven to latent so indivual can focus on world around them and forming friendships
Genital stage:
Puberty +
Focus: forming heterosexual relationships
Culminates with psychosexual energy taking residence in the genitals to be directed towards formation of adult relationships
If unresolved: struggle to form heterosexual relationships
- Psychodynamic Approach
8/16 marker hasn’t come up before:
Strengths of Psychodynamic Approach
P: A strength of the psychodynamic approach is the empirical research supporting the effectiveness of psychoanalysis.
Eg: Biskup et al. (2005) found that 77% of 36 patients showed significant improvements after psychoanalytic therapy. Additionally, Bachrach et al. (2000) conducted a meta-analysis of major studies, showing psychoanalysis’ effectiveness for many patients.
Ex: These findings highlight the practical benefits of psychodynamic therapy in treating various psychological disorders, supported by empirical evidence. Techniques like dream analysis and transference interpretation help patients understand unconscious motivations and past influences on current behavior.
L: Despite limited empirical support for psychodynamic theories, the effectiveness of psychodynamic treatments suggests their value in addressing complex psychological issues.
- Psychodynamic Approach
8/16 marker hasn’t come up before:
Limitations of Psychodynamic approach
P: A major limitation of the psychodynamic theory is that it has been criticized for being unscientific and untestable.
Eg: Core concepts such as the id, ego, and superego cannot be directly examined or measured, making the theory empirically untestable.
Ex: Karl Popper’s criterion of falsifiability suggests that for a theory to be scientific, it must be capable of being proven false. Freud’s theory, based on subjective interpretations and lacking objective evidence, fails to meet this criterion.
L: As a result, despite Freud’s influence, his theories are not widely covered in modern psychology courses due to their lack of scientific rigor and limited impact in contemporary research.
P: A limitation of Freud’s theory is its significant gender bias, as his theories were predominantly androcentric.
Eg: Freud’s focus on the Oedipus complex centers on male psychological development, and his concept of “penis envy” suggests women are inferior to men.
Ex: This gender bias limits the theory’s relevance to understanding female psychology, undermining its applicability and validity.
L: However, adaptations by female psychoanalysts, such as Melanie Klein, have expanded Freud’s theories, offering more inclusive insights into female behavior and development.
- Humanistic Approach
Define humanistic approach
Founded by Maslow and Rogers
Focused on discovering what it means to be fully human as they believe other Pyschology approaches are reductionist, deterministic and can’t explain the holistic complexity of human behaviour
- Humanistic Approach
Define free will as a part of the humanistic approach
Assumes every individual can assert free will and has a choice in how they behave.
Everyone can consciously control and influence their own personal destiny.
free will: The idea that we are in full control of our behaviour and decisions.
- Humanistic Approach
Define Maslows heirarchy of needs as a part of the humanistic approach
Model of psychological development.
-Maslow suggested that individuals are intrinsically motivated to ‘work up’ through the hierarchy step-by-step
-The needs become more psychological as you move up
-They needs are harder to satisfy the higher up you go
Self actualisation: morality, creativity
Self esteem: confidence, respect
Love and belonging: friendship, family, sexual intimacy
Safety and security: security of body, employment, health
Physiological needs: breathing, food, sex, sleep
Deficiency needs + growth needs
Work up the heirarchy step by step
- Humanistic Approach
Define Self actualisation of needs as a part of the humanistic approach
An achievement provides possibility of true self-awareness.
Takes form of peak experienced which are charecatised by feelings of euphoria, without any fear or inhibitions. Maslow cited Albert Einstein who achieved self actualisation through creativeness
Self actualisation means that a person becomes the best version of themselves they can be and reaches their full potential, which can be achieved after primarv needs have been met
- Humanistic Approach
Define focus on the self as a part of the humanistic approach
Rogers interested in the 2 basic needs:
- need for self-worth
-need for unconditional positive regard for other people
self worth: Rogers argues self-worth emerges from good relationships with supportive parents in childhood, and later with friends and partners, which directly impacts on psychological wellbeing.
Unconditional positive regard: This means that love and acceptance is unconditional.
Positive regard is not withdrawn if the person does something wrong or makes a mistake.
People who are able to self-actualise are more likely to have received positive regard from others, especially their parents in childhood.
Both emerge from good relationships with supportive parents in childhood and then friend and partners
An individuals self worth has a direct impact on psychological well being
- Humanistic Approach
Define role of conditions of worth as a part of the humanistic approach
Conditions of worth mean that individuals feel they must behave in certain ways to receive this positive regard.
If a person has conditions of worth they only receive conditional positive regard.
- Humanistic Approach
Define congruence as a part of the humanistic approach
Rogers focused on ‘the self’
Persons ideal self and actual self are aligned and are very similar.
- Humanistic Approach
Define influence on counselling Pyschology as a part of the humanistic approach
Roger’s believed that through taking a person-centered approach to counselling.
* The role of the therapist in this process is to provide unconditional positive regard to the client by expressing acceptance, empathy and understanding of their condition.
* This will help to close the gap between the perceived and the ideal self
* The gap can be reduced by developing a more healthy view of oneself or has a more achievable and realistic ideal self
- Humanistic Approach
Strengths of humanistic approach
P: A significant strength of humanistic psychology is its profound influence on psychological counseling.
Eg: Carl Rogers’ concept of unconditional positive regard is widely applied in therapy, where therapists accept and respect clients without judgment. For example, a therapist may help a client with low self-esteem to recognize their worth, reducing the gap between their actual and ideal selves.
Ex: Humanistic principles have also been applied in workplace settings, with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs being used to understand employee motivation. Companies use this hierarchy to ensure basic needs, such as job security and fair compensation, are met before encouraging personal development.
L: The contributions of Rogers and Maslow have shaped contemporary therapeutic practices, emphasizing empathy, authenticity, and a deeper understanding of the human experience.
P: A strength of the humanistic approach is its holistic perspective, rejecting reductionist methods of studying human behavior.
Eg: Humanistic psychology focuses on areas like consciousness and emotion, which are difficult to study scientifically and require more subjective methods. Techniques like client-centered therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, emphasize empathy, unconditional positive regard, and active listening to foster personal growth.
Ex: Through qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews, humanistic psychology provides insights into individual behavior and human experiences that more scientific approaches might overlook.
L: While most psychologists advocate for scientific methods, humanistic psychology arguably offers a deeper understanding of the richness of the human experience by focusing on the whole person.
- Humanistic Approach
Limitation of the humanistic approach
P: A limitation is its ethnocentric bias, as it is primarily based on ideals from Westernized cultures.
Eg: Core concepts of humanistic psychology, such as individual freedom, autonomy, and personal growth, align more with individualistic cultures, like those in the UK and USA, which emphasize personal achievement over collective well-being.
Ex: Nevis (1983) conducted a study in China, showing that belongingness needs were considered more fundamental than self-esteem needs, contrary to Maslow’s hierarchy, which prioritizes self-fulfillment. This suggests that in collectivist societies, social and relational needs are prioritized over individualistic goals.
L: Therefore, while the humanistic approach offers valuable insights within Western contexts, its ethnocentric bias limits its generalizability to collectivist cultures.
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the biological approach take in the free will vs determinism approach
Biological determinism
Behaviour is controlled by internal biological factors e.g. genes, hormones, neurotransmitters,
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the biological approach take in the nature vs nurture approach
Nature
Behaviour is the result of innate biological factors (e.g. genes, hormones, neurotransmitters,
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the biological approach take in the reductionism vs holism approach
Biological Reductionism
Behaviour is broken down into biological structures/processes.
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the biological approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic approach
Nomothetic
Creates universal laws, as humans share similar physiologies.
- Comparison of Approaches
Is the biological approach scientific?
Scientific
The biological approach promotes scientific methods of investigation (e.g.
brain imaging)
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the behaviourist approach take in the free will vs determinism approach
Environmental determinism
Behaviours controlled by stimulus response conditioning
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the behaviourist approach take in the nature vs nurture approach
Nurture
humans are born as a tabula rasa and behaviour is learnt
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the behaviourist approach take in the reductionism vs holism approach
Environmental reductionism
Behaviour is broken down into simple stimulus response links
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the behaviourist approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic approach
Nomothetic
Creates universal laws, as behaviour is the result of a stimulus response link
- Comparison of Approaches
Is the behaviourist approach scientific
Scientific
The behaviourist approach utilises scientific method of investigation eg: lab experiments and animal research
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the social learning theory take in the free will vs determinism approach
Soft determinism
Behaviour is controlled by environmental forces however, humans have personal responsibility and free choice
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the social learning theory take in the nature vs nurture approach
Nurture
Behaviour is learnt from observation and vicarious reinforcement
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the social learning theory take in the reductionism vs holism approach
Partially reductionist
Shares elements of the behaviourist and cognitive approach
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the social learning theory take in the idiographic vs nomothetic approach
Nomothetic
Attempt to establish general laws of behaviour (eg: vicarious reinforcement)
- Comparison of Approaches
Is the social learning theory scientific
Mostly scientific
Utilises scientific methods, but also takes into account mediational processes
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the cognitive approach take in the free will vs determinism approach
Soft determinism
Behaviour is controlled by mediational processes that humans can choose what information they intend to
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the cognitive approach take in the nature vs nurture approach
Both
Behaviour is the product of information processing and modified by experience
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the cognitive approach take in the reductionism vs holism approach
Experimental reductionism
Behaviour is investigated in terms of isolated variables eg: capacity of STM
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the cognitive approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic approach
Both
Attempts to establish general laws of cognitive processing, but utilises an idiographic approach with case studies
- Comparison of Approaches
Is the cognitive approach scientific
Mostly scientific
Utilises scientific methods of investigation, but researchers are unable to directly observe cognitive processes
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the psychodynamic approach take in the free will vs determinism approach
Psychic determinism
Behaviour is determined by unconscious drives and early childhood experiences
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the psychodynamic approach take in the nature vs nurture approach
Mostly nature
Behaviour is the product of innate drives , but shaped by early childhood experiences
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the psychodynamic approach take in the reductionism vs holism approach
Both
Behaviour is reduced to innate drives , while taking into account the multiple aspects of human behaviour
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the psychodynamic approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic approach
Both
Attempt to establish general laws in relation to innate drives , whilst considering unique experiences during childhood
- Comparison of Approaches
Is the psychodynamic approach scientific
Not scientific
Examines many concepts and theories, which cannot be a empirically tested . Relies on subjective interpretation.
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the humanistic approach take in the free will vs determinism approach
Free will
Humans control their own environment and are capable of change
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the humanistic approach take in the nature vs nurture approach
Mostly nurture
Behaviour are shaped by the environment as humans strive to achieve self-actualisation
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the humanistic approach take in the reductionism vs holism approach
Holism
Focuses on understanding all aspects of human experience and interaction
- Comparison of Approaches
Which side does the humanistic approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic approach
Idiographic
Focuses on the subject of human experience, and makes no attempt to create general laws
- Comparison of Approaches
Is the humanistic approach scientific
Not scientific
Reject scientific methods and is therefore unable to provide empirical evidence
