Paper 3 - Issues & Debates Flashcards
Gender Bias : What is universality and gender bias (what undermines what )
Universality - Idea that psychological theories, concepts, and research findings should be applicable to all people, regardless of their gender, culture or background.
Bias is leaning towards a personal view that doesn’t reflect reality- research and theory may not accurately represent the experience and behaviour of men and women (gender bias).
Gender bias undermines universality
Gender Bias : what is alpha and beta bias (how do they assume)
Alpha Bias - theories that assume there are real and enduring differences between men and women. Differences exaggerated.
Beta bias - theories that ignore or minimise gender differences.
Alpha and Beta bias do this by assuming all people are the same and therefore it is reasonable to apply these theories with both men and women. Remember we are trying to create theories that can be apply.
Gender Bias : evidence for alpha bias
Alpha Bias - Evidence to support (Freud)
This exaggerates the difference between men and women, therefore theories that are alpha bias devalue one gender in comparison to the other.
This is evident in Freud’s research
Freud’s theories reflect the culture in which he lived, in the 19th century men were more powerful and more educated and superior. In Freud’s theory he viewed femininity as failed masculinity (exaggerated the difference).
Evidence – women have penis envy, they cannot undergo the Oedipus complex and therefore have a weak identification with mother. Women have an inferior morality due to her superego.
Gender Bias : evidence for beta bias
Beta Bias
Androcentrism can also result is people assuming that what is true for men is also true for women, thus mistaking minimises the differences between men and women.
Consequence = one gender is ignored (generally women).
An Example: Research on fight-or-flight stress response
Biological research is usually conducted with male animals because in females variations in hormone level would make the research more difficult. It is assumed that the fight-or-flight response was universal until Psychologists have challenged this.
Taylor (2000) found that females produce a tend-and-befriend response at times of
stress which is adaptive – ensures survival of their offspring and networking of females. Therefore real gender difference was ignored = Beta Bias
Gender Bias : androcentrism & universality
Androcentrism - From the start psychology was always male dominated, most of the theories we study therefore represent a male world view. This is Androcentrism and may produce alpha or beta bias. This also leads to female behaviour being misunderstood and even pathologised (taken as a sign of illness).
Universality - It would be wrong to eradicate gender difference as a way to resolve the gender bias issue – that would be beta bias. The solution therefore lies in recognising differences but not the superiority of one gender over the other.
Gender bias : moral reasoning research (Kohlberg and Gilligan)
Kohlberg (1969) produced a theory on moral development – suggesting that the moral decisions we make are based on an ethic of justice. His research entailed asking men to describe what behaviour was more appropriate in certain situations then applied his findings to all. = Beta Bias
When Kohlberg tested women in 1982, he found they were less morally developed than men = Alpha Bias – the original bias meant that he now exaggerated men and women differences
Gilligan (1982) showed that women favoured a care orientation whereas men favoured a justice orientations. Shows there’s a difference but NO bias.
A03 : Gender bias : feminist psychology (Eagly)
Only way to counter androcentrism is to take a feminist perspective. Feminist psychology argues that difference psychology arises from biological explanations of behaviour. However they believe these are socially determined stereotypes which make far greater differences. Feminists believe that a condition to any social change will be a revision of our facts. They are a branch of psychologists aimed to address the imbalances in theory and research in psychology.
Eagly (1978) acknowledged that women may be less effective leaders than men, but this knowledge should be used to develop suitable training programmes and therefore create a future with more women as leaders.This way the balance can be restored through greater support.
A03 : Gender Bias : Bias in research methods (Rosenthal)
It may not be the gender that differs, rather the methods used to test or observe them are biased, so males and females appear to be different.
Rosenthal (1966) found that male experimenters are more pleasant, friendly and encouraging to female participants then to male participants. Results male participants preformed less well than,female participants.
A03 : Gender bias : reflexivity and reverse alpha bias
Reflexivity - embrace own biases as an important aspect of the research process
Reverse alpha Bias - Another approach is to develop theories which show differences between men and women
A02/A03 : Gender Bias : 3 links to other topics (gender, schizophrenia & social influence)
Gender
Bem sex role inventory - gender bias in highlighting the difference in female and male characteristics when attempting to identify androgyny (alpha bias as assumed androgyny was superior).
Psychopathology
Disorders such as depression and anxiety are more frequently diagnosed in women, likely stemming from women being seen as more emotional. This links to alpha bias
Social Influence
Zimbardo’s Standord Prison Exp - only males were sampled and the conformity of social roles /authority is generalised to females even though we don’t know they will act the same. This is beta bias and shows universality.
Culture bias : explain Heinrich et al term WEIRD
Henrich et al coined the term WEIRD to describe the group of people most likely to be studied by psychologists (Westernised, Educated people from Industrialised, Rich Democracies)
• If the norm or standard for a particular behaviour is set by WEIRD people, then the behaviour of people from non-Western, less educated, agricultural or poorer cultures are inevitably seen as ‘abnormal’, ‘inferior’ or ‘unusual’.
Culture bias : alpha bias (real and enduring differences between culture groups)
• Distinction is usually made between collectivist and individualistic cultures.
• We would expect individualistic cultures to be less conformist, as they don’t work for the group norms.
• HOWEVER – Takano (1999) reviewed 15 studies comparing US and Japan in terms of individualism and collectivism. 14/15 studies did not support the common view about the differences in conformity. This suggests that the distinction between individualistic and collectivist cultures is no longer useful.
Culture bias : beta bias (theories that ignore/minimise cultural differences) - links to imposed etic
• All people are the same and therefore its reasonable to use the same theory/method on all cultures.
• Psychologists use IQ tests devised by Western Psychologists to study intelligence in many cultures, therefore the view of intelligence applies to all cultures equally. However Western societies state intelligence lies within the person, whereas collectivist cultures see intelligence as a functional relationship depending on shared knowledge between the individual and the society. Therefore if a western IQ test is used on a non-western individual then they more likely to appear less intelligent. This is imposed etic – a research tool made in one culture imposed on another culture.
Culture bias : ethnocentrism
The use of our own ethnic group as a basis for judgement about other groups. A tendency to view the beliefs, customs and behaviours of our own group as normal and even superior, whereas those of other groups are strange or deviant.
Culture bias : ethnocentrism linking to alpha bias
• Ones own culture is considered to be different and better, and the consequence of this is that other cultures and their practice are devalued. i.e. individualistic cultures,
independence is valued, dependence is devalued. In collectivist dependence is highly valued.
Culture bias : ethnocentrism linking to beta bias
• If psychologists believe their world view is the only view. i.e. IQ testing is ethnocentric as American IQ tests can be used all over the world as the assumption was American standard was universal.
Culture bias : cultural relativism
The idea that all cultures are worthy of respect and that while studying another culture we need to try to understand the way that a particular culture sees the world.
Culture bias : cultural relativism links to alpha bias
• The assumptions of real differences leads psychologists to overlook universals. I.e. Meads research (from Gender) where she initially concludes that there were significant gender differences due to culture, but later recognised that there were universal’s (men are more aggressive than women).
Culture bias : cultural relativism links to beta bias
• In the case of statistical infrequency definition of abnormality, behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be statistically more frequent in another. By assuming the same rules apply universally, we may diagnose some people as mentally ill but that diagnose is relative to our culture.
Culture bias : imposed etic linking to Ainsworth strange situation
Imposed etic is when a psychologist creates a research tool to work in one culture then expects it to work on another. For example Ainsworth strange situation, was created for western cultures where mum and child plays, then mum leaves the
room (child showed anxiety) this showed western children mainly as secure. However when used in Japan, children where described as insecure resistant as they showed intense distress. This is due to the fact that mothers rarely put their young down/leave their child, therefore it made Japanese children seem inferior to western.
A03 : culture bias : indigenous psychologists
Indigenous Psychologists
Encourage indigenous psychologists that develop theories in different countries. Afrocentrism is a movement whose central proposition is that all black people have their roots in Africa and that psychological theories concerning such people must by African-centred and must express African values. It suggests that values and culture of Europeans at worse devalue non-European people, and at best are irrelevant to the life and culture of people of African descent.
A03 : culture bias : emic-etic distinction
The emic approach is one that only tends to show the behaviour of one specific culture (above). The etic approach looks for universal behaviour, however may be bias. The way to counteract this bias is using indigenous psychologists in each cultural settings, for each theory/research. This way true understanding of that culture can be truthfully given.
A03 : culture bias : bias in research methods
Cultural bias can also be dealt with by using samples from different cultures.
• Sears (1986) found that 82% of research studies used undergraduates as participants and 51% were psychology students. This shows that a considerable amount of psychology research is based on middle-class, academic, young adults who are often male. Therefore a lot of research is not only unrepresentative globally but also within the western culture.
A02/A03 : culture bias : linking to gender (BEM’S BSRI)
Bem’s BSRI, Only tested in the USA and masculine and feminine traits will differ across cultures so shouldn’t be generalised. Not applicable to eastern/collectivist cultures.
A02/A03 : culture bias : classification of Sz
DSM-V made by the American psychiatric association. ICD-10 made in Europe.
Cultural bias, Some symptoms like hearing voices are desired in some cultures/religions (voices of god or ancestors).
e.g. Afro-Caribbean societies ‘hear voices’ from ancestors. Afro-Caribbean British men are up to ten times more likely to receive a diagnosis as white British men, probably due to over interpretation of symptoms by UK psychiatrists. This means that Afro-Caribbean men living in the UK appear to be discriminated against by a culturally-biased diagnostic system.
Define free will and determinism
Determinism - An individual’s behaviour is controlled by either internal or external forces. Behaviour is predictable.
Free Will - Individuals have an active role in controlling their behaviour, they are free to choose and not acting in response to any external or internal pressures.
Determinism : Biological Determinism
• A lot of research on human genomes is proving that our behaviours are determined by our genes.
• i.e. research on intelligence has identified particular genes found in people with high
intelligence, such as IGF2R gene.
• Genes influence brain structure are neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine that are often implicated in behaviour.
Determinism : Environmental Determinism
• Behaviourists believe all behaviour is determined by previous experiences, though operant and classical conditioning.
• Our experience of ‘choice’ is the sum of reinforcement contingencies that have acted upon us throughout our lives.
• Our behaviour has been shaped, and determined through stimulus response.
Determinism : Psychic Determinism
• Behaviour is determined and directed by unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood.
• Behaviour is driven by the libido, which focuses sequentially on erogenous zones such as the moth or anus.
• If a child is overindulged or frustrated, during development then the libido remains tied to the relevant erogenous zone and the individual is this fixated on that zone.
• The method of obtaining satisfaction that characterised the stage will determine the adult personality.
Determinism : Scientific Determinism
• All events have a cause and that causes can be explained by general laws.
• Knowledge of causes and the formulation of laws are important as they allow scientists to predict and control events in the future.
• The laboratory method enables researchers to stimulate the conditions to manipulate an IV to measure the DV and control extraneous variables.
Determinism : what is hard and soft determinism
Hard determinism
• Suggests that all human action has a cause
• It should be possible to identify these causes
Soft determinism
• Suggests all human action has a cause but people have freedom to make choices within a restricted range of options
Free Will : Humanistic Approach
• Maslow and Rogers argued that self-determination (free will) was a necessary part of human behaviour. Without it, self-development and self-actualisation are not possible.
• Rogers (1959) claimed that as long as an individual remains controlled by other people or other things, they cannot take responsibility for their behaviour and therefore cannot begin to change it.
• Things which are outside a persons sense of self remain beyond personal control.
• Only when an individual takes self-responsibility is personal growth possible, resulting in psychological health.
Free Will : Moral Responsibility
• The basis of moral responsibility is that an individual is in charge of their own actions.
• The law states that children and those who are mentally ill do not have this responsibility, but otherwise there is the assumption, in our society, that normal adult behaviour is self-determined (free Will).
• Humans are accountable for their actions, regardless of innate factors or the influences of early experience.
Scientific Determinism : what is causal explanations and what is the emphasis on it
Causal explanations - what is this?
• Psychology as a science
• Basic principle:every event has a cause & these can be explained with general laws
• Knowledge of these laws allows scientists to predict and control events
Psychologists must:
• Generate a theory and hypothesis whereby cause and effect can be established
• Use empirical methods such as lab experiments to test the hypothesis
• Apply statistical analysis to see if their prediction is statistically significant or not
Emphasis on Causal explanation
• To establish the influences on behaviour, psychologists attempt to use the scientific method, by controlling all extraneous and confounding variables as far as possible to ascertain that the IV has affected the DV (result)
• Determinism lends itself to using the scientific method, increasing the credibility of Psychology and allowing predictions to be tested. As a result, treatments for conditions such as schizophrenia have been successfully developed.
Free Will/Determinism : What is the paradigm shift
• A paradigm is a widely accepted belief or assumption about how behaviour is studied or explained
• A paradigm shift, as identified Thomas Kuhn (1962), is an important change in the basic concepts and experimental practices of a scientific discipline
• It is a change from one way of thinking to another
• Also referred to as a ‘scientific revolution’
A03 : Free Will Vs Determinsim : Genetic determinsim (link in +/- and examples)
Doubtful that 100% genetic determination will ever be found for any behaviour, concordance is never 100%, 80% similarity for IQ and about 40% for depression, therefore genes do not entirely determine behaviour.
A03 : Free will vs determinism : environmental determinism (link in +/- and examples)
Environment cannot also be the sole determining factor in behaviour as there is some genetic input.
A03 : Free will vs determinism : scientific determinism (link in +/- and examples)
Dennett (2003) argues there is no such thing as total determinism, the butterfly effect proves this – small changes in the initial conditions can result in major changes.
• Deterministic explanations oversimplify human behaviour, they are appropriate for animals but humans are less rigid and influenced by may factors such as thinking about what you want to do which override biological factors.
• Therefore the idea of finding a simple determinist formula from psychological research is unrealistic
A03 : Free will vs determinism : illusion of free will (link in +/- and examples)
Being able to decide between different course of action is not free will, but
it may give the illusion of having free will.
• Choices may be determined by previous reinforcement experiences.
A03 : Free will vs determinism : research challenges free will (link in +/- and examples)
Libet (1983) recorded activity in motor areas of the brain before the person has a conscious awareness of the decision to move their finger (this was a pre-determined read out action).
• Chun Siong (2008) found activity in the prefrontal cortex up to 10 seconds before a person was aware of their decision to act.
• HOWEVER
• Trevena and Miller (2009) showed that the brain activity was simply a readiness to act, rather than an intention to move.
• Presently neuroscience supports free will.
Explain nature & nurture
Innate influences are known as nature, abilities present due to genes, not just at birth (Huntington’s only apparent in adulthood).
Environmental influences are known as nurture, acquired through interactions within the environment or experiences. This can be before birth, i.e. mother who smokes. New born’s are a Tabula rasa, a blank slate for all experience to be written upon.
What are the key aspects of the nature vs nurture debate
Interactionist approach – all characteristics combine nature and nurture
• Diathesis-stress model
• Epigenetics – change in genetic activity without changing the genetic code (lifestyle choices switch genes on or off)
• Nature – inherited influences
• Nurture – environmental influences
• Measuring nature and nurture – concordance rates (degree to which people are similar) and hereditary (proportion of differences in population).
Nature vs Nurture : nature - genetic explanations
• Family, twin and adoption studies show that the closer two individuals are genetically the more likely that both of them will develop the same behaviours. MZ twins = 100% genetically similar, DZ twins= 50%.
• Concordance rates for schizophrenia for MZ twins are 40%, for DZ twins is 7%. This shows that genetics majorly contribute to behaviours.
Nature vs Nurture : nature - evolutionary explanations
• A behaviour or characteristic that promotes survival/reproduction will be naturally selected, due to characteristics being adaptive, this ensures they can be passed on to subsequent generations.
• Attachment behaviours are naturally selected through genetic mechanisms.
• Bowlby (1969) proposed attachment was adaptive as an infant was more likely to be protected therefore will survive. Also attachment promotes close relationships which foster successful reproduction.
• Sutherland (pro crime attitudes of family, peers and community – association, keep rewards = positive reinforcement, avoid prison = negative reinforcement)
• Bandura – SLT
Nature vs Nurture : nurture - behaviourism
• All behaviour can be explained in terms of experience alone, through classical and operant conditioning learning. Link Attachment (cupboard) or forensics?
Nature vs Nurture : nurture - SLT
• Behaviour is acquired through learning from the environment BUT added that it could be acquired through vicarious reinforcement.
• Bandura also said that biology did play a part, i.e. the urge to act aggressively may be biological, but the expression in acquired through environmental influences. Link Bandura?
Nature vs Nurture : nurture - other explanations
• Other than behaviourism and SLT there are other psychological explanations that are nurture.
• I.e. Double bind explanation for Schizophrenia, states that children develop schizophrenia by getting contradictory messages from their parents (mum tells son she loves him, but turns away in disgust).
• These conflicting messages of feelings, prevents the child developing a consistent construction of reality.
A03 : Nature vs nurture : nature and nurture can’t be separated (add in examples)
• Both contribute, phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inherited disorder that prevents amino acids being metabolised – results in brain damage. If detected at birth, a diet devoid of phenylalanine can be given, this will prevent brain damage. If prevention can be achieved through environmental manipulation, is this condition nature or nurture? It links more to interactionist.
• Diathesis-stress - A diathesis is a biological vulnerability, a gene that predisposes you to have a disorder. However not everyone with particular disorder genes develop that disorder, it depends on experience / stressors which triggers the disorder. Therefore a persons nature is expressed under certain nurture conditions.
A03 : Nature vs nurture : nature affects nurture (add in examples)
• Genes may exert an indirect effect – a child who is genetically aggressive might provoke an aggressive response in others. This response then comes part of learning from the environment. Plomin (1977) called this the REACTIVE GENE (the child is reacting to genetically influenced behaviour). Plomin - a second kind of interaction, PASSIVE INFLUENCE (Parents genes influence child’s behaviour, i.e. parent has a genetically determined mental disorder, this creates an unsettled home life. Childs mental health may be impacted by indirect passive effects). ACTIVE INFLUENCE (niche picking. Children seek out experiences that suit their genes. the influence of genes increase as children get older, due to niche picking).
A03 : Nature vs nurture : nurture affects nature (add in examples)
• Life experiences shape your biology - Blakemore and cooper (1970) work with kittens shows how experiences affect innate systems. Kittens were given collars that restrict what they could see and they were raised in a circular drum with either vertical or horizontal stripes. At 5 months they were released into the real world and no longer had the ability to see lines that opposite orientation. This shows their innate visual system has been altered through experience.
• Epigenetics – the material in each cell that act like switches to turn genes on/off. Life experiences control these switches and these are mostly passed on through the generations. Therefore, identical twins, might produce children who would differ in weight even though they had identical diets – this is due to the epigenetic material inherited derived from the environmental effect. This is why cloning does not produce exactly the same person/animal. This means that genetic and the environment are much less separate than we thought.
Explain reductionism and Holism
Reductionism involves breaking a complex phenomenon down into more simple components.
• This process is desirable because complex phenomena are best understood in terms of a simpler level of explanation. This is a powerful tool that has led to major discoveries. Also known as ‘Parsimony’.
Holism is where simple components do no express that essence of a behaviour – the sum of the parts DOES NOT equal the whole. Takes into account EVERYTHING (if cut a cake, Holism of the cake would be all the slices out back together but also the crumbs which have been dropped).
• Also referred to as ‘Gestalt psychology’
Reductionism in more depth (based on … & levels of reductionism)
• Based on the scientific principle of parsimony – all phenomena should be explained using the simplest principles. The reductionist approach suggests that explanations begin at the highest level and progressively look at component elements. (Highest level – cultural and social explanations of how our social groups affect our behaviour, Medium level – psychological explanations of behaviour, Lower level – biological explanation of how hormones affect our behaviour).
i.e. memory can be explained at all levels:
• Social Cultural affect what we remember (highest level of reductionism, least reductionist)
• Psychological – episodic memories
• Biological – areas of the brain where certain memories are stored (lowest level of reductionism, most reductionist)
Explain biological reductionism
• Biological psychologists reduce behaviour to the action of neurons, hormones and
neurotransmitters. i.e. Crime can be explained by low levels of serotonin, high levels or noradrenaline.
• Schizophrenia can be explained by excessive dopamine, drugs that block dopamine reduce the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Explain environmental reductionism
• Behaviourist state that all behaviour can be explained in terms of stimulus response links, a relationship between behaviour and events in the environment. i.e. in attachment, mother provides food, this removes hunger, gives pleasure – she is rewarding so become a loved one.
Explain experimental reductionism
Reducing complex behaviour to isolated variables is a useful strategy for conducting research, behaviours are reduced to operationalised variables that can be manipulated and measured to determine casual relationships.
Explain Holism in more detail (link to gestalt)
A whole rather than component parts, this approach suggest that we cannot predict how the whole system will behave just from knowledge of the individual components.
• The whole being greater than the sum of its parts
• Uses several levels of explanation, including biological, environmental and social factors
• Gestalt psychology – “The Whole” - Gestalt psychologists focus mainly on perception arguing that explanations for what we see only make sense through a consideration of the whole rather than individual elements.
Holism linked to humanistic psychology
Individuals react as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimulus-response
links. What matters most is a persons sense of unified identity; therefore a lack of wholeness leads to a mental disorder.
Holism linked to cognitive psychology
Cognitive Psychology
• Memory is a complex system, the idea is that each unit (neuron) within the overall network is linked to many other units. These develop through experience, these experiences will weaken or strengthen. Therefore holistic, as the network as a whole will act differently than individual parts.
A03 : Holism vs Reductionism : danger of lower levels of explanation
The danger of lower levels of explanation (biological explanations)
• If lower levels are taken in isolation then the meaning of behaviour can be overlooked – this leads to errors in understanding. The lower levels distract us from a more appropriate level of explanation, for example administering Ritalin to hyperactive children may miss the real cause of the child’s hyperactive behaviour such as family problems.
Sz antipsychotics relieve symptoms but don’t work out the cause of Sz.
A03 : Holism vs Reductionism : environmental determinism
It may be appropriate to explain behaviour is simple components, but such explanations may not be appropriate for more complex human behaviour. Behaviourist experiments use animals but humans are not the same as animals, we are influenced by social context and interactions. Even the animal research is reductionist as it ignores other possible influences such as cognitive processes. Humans have a higher order of thinking than animals.
Bring in behaviourists examples - link to Skinner’s Rat Exp
A03 : Holism vs Reductionism : experimental reductionism
• A lot of research has been developed from this area, but the question is the reliability of the research in being applicable to everyday life.
• I.e. Studies like Loftus and Palmer have not been backed up by real life studies.
• There are other factors in life that cannot be recreated in a lab experiment (operationalising variables is not true) – therefore findings cannot reflect the real world. Lab studies good because control variables and isolate them but does it reflect real life. This therefore can impact the reliability and validity of the studies.
A03 : Holism vs Reductionism : the mind-body problem an interactionist approach (2 solutions)
Problem of explaining the relationship between the mind and the brain.
Solution 1: everything is reducible to the physical world, however we can only observe that certain physical events are ASSOCIATED with mental event’s
• I.e. Certain electrical activity in the brain (REM) is associated with subjective reports of dreaming. Therefore psychologists jump to conclusions. Assume that we have cause and effect but may actually have correlation. May assume when in the REM stage we dream but actually it is just people may remember dreams in REM stage. Psychologists need to make sure they don’t jump to conclusions and try to assume a cause & effect.
Solution 2: analyse how the different levels of explanation interact.
Research has shown the mind can affect our body.
Make assumption that drugs only affect neurotransmitters but actually could be other causes and can affect biological side using the psychological side so actually they can interact and work together. Need to take into account more than the one factor but actually they can all affect eachother. Could be an in between of reductionist and Holism
• Martin (2001) found that depressed patients who received psychotherapy experienced the same changes in levels of serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain as those experiencing those receiving drug therapy. Therefore need to consider that the high, medium and low levels can interact between each other.
• Kandel (1979) such physiological change should not be surprising because we know that learning creates new neural connections.
Explain the idiographic vs nomothetic debate and give quick definition
Idiographic – Qualitative
• Detailed study of one individual or one group
• Provide an in-depth understanding
Nomothetic – Quantitative
• Study of larger groups
• Aim of discovering norms, universal principles or ‘laws’ of behaviour
Idiographic vs Nomothetic: The Debate
• The Idiographic approach focuses on the individual cases as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour (nomothetic).
• Main stream psychology has tended to be nomothetic in its approach, but throughout the last century idiographic contributions has been substantial.
Explain the idiographic approach in more detail
The Idiographic Approach – Unique Insights
Qualitative Methods
• Focus is on insight into human behaviour by studying unique individuals.
• Focus on QUALITY of information not numerical data to form averages.
• Methods Used – unstructured interviews, case studies, thematic analysis.
Give 3 examples of the idiographic approach
• Psychodynamic: Freud used case studies, such as Little Hans. 150 pages of quotes from Hans’ father which Freud then put his interpretation on these. Although
he did generalise – this is still idiographic as they drawn on unique experience. (However he generalised to everyone so could also be argued as nomothetic)
• Humanism: Concerned with studying the whole person, and seeing the world from the perspective of that person. The persons subjective experience is what matters.
• Research Methods: Allport (1961) believed that the idiographic perspective could tell us more about human behaviour and personality then could a personality test (EPQ) – this only provides statistical information.
How would the idiographic approach be carried out
• The researcher would test a small sample
• Involves a collection of a large amount of data about a small group or individual from various different methods
• Analysis would involve qualitative methods, e.g. Interviews, open ended questionnaires, journals inform about the precise nature of the negative thoughts
• Enables greater insight
Explain the nomothetic approach in more detail
The Nomothetic Approach – Generalisable laws
• Quantitative Research
• Based on numbers
• Measures of central tendency and dispersion, graphs and statistical analysis
• Data required from groups of people not individuals uniqueness.
• Studies may have 20 to thousands of participants
• Findings are then generalised.
Explain how the nomothetic approach would be carried out
• The researcher would test a large sample
• Sampling should involve a method of sample selection to give representativeness of a larger target population, e.g random sampling
• The researcher would use a testable directional hypothesis
• Involves a collection of a large amount of data
• Analysis would involve quantitative methods, eg statistical testing and the drawing of conclusions in relation to a wider population
Give 4 examples of the nomothetic approach
The Nomothetic Approach – Generalisable laws
Examples
• Biological: seeks to portray the basic principles of how the body and brain work, however in the past only men are used.
• Behaviourist: Produces general laws of behaviour through operant and classical conditioning, however a lot of research was carried out on animals and generalised to humans, 1 rule for all.
• Cognitive: does use case studies but these are required in order to understand the working of the normal mind, it is often necessary to look at an abnormal case .
• Eysenck: EPQ measured personality where large numbers of people are tested and the results show what is normal and abnormal. This was a factor analysis, which is a statistical technique that reduces data to a smaller set of component parts.
A03 : Idiographic vs Nomothetic : focus on the individual level
Focus of the Individual Level
• Qualitative researchers felt there was too much emphasis on measurement and psychology had lost sight of what it was to be human.
• Allport argued that it is only by knowing the person as a person that we can predict what that person will do in any situation.
• Therefore this approach is a strength to focus at an individual level.
A03 : Idiographic vs Nomothetic : time consuming
• Idiographic approach is time consuming, as have to collect and collate huge amounts of data about one person.
• Nomothetic approach is not as time consuming although samples are usually huge, once a questionnaire has been devised data can be generated and processed relatively quickly.
A03 : Idiographic vs Nomothetic : scientific basis
• The idiographic approach is not scientific; this has led to the growth of positivist psychology as they believe findings of humanism were meaningless. Therefore positivists aim to be more evidence based.
• Other idiographic methods like case studies or qualitative research are evidence based and seek to be objective. They seek to use reflexivity – where the researcher thinks critically during the research process about the factors that affect behaviour.
A03 : Idiographic vs Nomothetic : being able to make predictions
• Idiographic approach is limited when it comes to making general predictions about behaviour. Its too time consuming to make personalised therapies for each individual. Therefore predictions about the most likely therapeutic solution is best.
• Allport argues once a detailed case of a few individuals has been completed, these can be used to make generalisations to formulate theories
• However Hall (1970) argues the stance Allport is taking is basically nomothetic anyway.
A03 : Idiographic vs Nomothetic : combined methods
• Holt (1976) both methods make generalisations in the end, he stated there is no such thing as a unique individual. As Hall (1970) state idiographic methods do eventually become nomothetic.
• Million (1996) it would be best to start as nomothetic, then once laws have been produced focus on a better idiographic understanding.
• Freud’s approach uses both approaches as idiographic methods are used to study people, but also used to generate general principles about human development (his theory of personality).
• Uniqueness can be explained through nomothetic laws, as Eysenck said each individual is unique insofar as they have a unique combination of extraversion, introversion and neuroticism.
Ethical Implications : the difference between ethical implications and ethical issues
Issues = These refer to specific ethical concerns that arise when conducting psychological research.
Implications = These refer to the wider effects that research or theories may have on individuals, groups, or society.
Ethical implications : what are Sieber and Stanley 4 aspects in the research process
The Research Question: Asking a question may be damaging to particular racial groups or sexual orientation because it appears to add scientific credibility to the prevailing prejudice. i.e. racial differences in IQ or is homosexuality innate?
Conduct of research and Treatment of Participants: The main concern is the confidentiality of the information collected. I.e. if participants confess to a crime, should it be kept confidential?
The Institutional Context: Research may be funded and managed by private institutions who may misuse the data or may misunderstand the data that is produced. The media may then obtain such findings and misreport them.
Interpretation and Applications of findings: Research findings may be used for purposes other than originally intended. I.e. IQ tests highlight inferiority of certain groups of people and used to identify the “feeble minded” who could then be sterilised (early 20th Century)
Ethical Implications : what are sieber and Stanley 10 ethical guidelines for carrying out socially sensitive research
Privacy: During the research process, a skilled investigator may extract more information from participants than they intended to give, some research may led to social policies that are an invasion of peoples private lives.
Confidentiality: Participants may be less willing to divulge information in the future if confidentiality is breached and further related research would be compromised.
Valid Methodology: In cases of poor methodology (non – valid findings) scientists may be aware of these problems, but the media and the public may not, therefore poor studies may shape important social policy to the detriment of those represented by research.
Deception: Includes self-deception whereby research may lead people to form untrue stereotypes, which affects own performance.
Informed Consent: potential participants may not always understand what is involved.
Equitable Treatment: all participants should be treated in a equitable manner, vital resources which are vital to a participant should not be withheld from one group yet available to another group (i.e. education)
Scientific Freedom: Scientists have a duty/obligation not to harm participants as well as institutions in society.
Ownership of Data: some of the problems in determining ownership involve the sponsorship of the research (i.e. university department) and the public accessibility.
Values: psychologists differ in their orientation towards subjective and more objective approaches. Sensitive issues arise when there is a clash in such values between scientists and recipient of the research.
Risk/Benefit Ratio: risks should be minimised, but problems arise in determining risks as well as benefits.
Ethical implications : 5 examples of socially sensitive research and why
Zimbardo (scientific freedom & informed consent) - Psychological & physical harm, feel guilty that they act the way they did but they weren’t aware of what the study was testing.
Milgram shock study (informed consent & scientific freedom) - Long lasting affects/guilt, not good for holocaust survivors as their behaviour has been justified as following authority and it’s not there fault.
Asch line study (deception) - Results may be over generalised therefore miss use of findings and creates false image.
Bowlby’s monotropic theory (risk/benefit ratio) - Stereotypes of mothers as if they have to be with the child all the time and if they aren’t they are responsible for them being underdeveloped. Also will make fathers feel useless.
Rosenhan - Label those working in psychiatric hospitals as being poor at their job. Bad image of workers but also will stop people with mental issues going to hospital for help.
A03 : Ethical Implications : wider impact of research
• There are always some social consequences to participation in research, with socially sensitive research there is also the increased potential for a more indirect impact on the participants family, their co-workers or the group they represent (addicts, women, elderly etc.)
• It does not seem sufficient to simply safeguard the interests of the individual in the research, there must be some consideration of the likely impact of the research on the larger group of which the participant is a member.
A03 : Ethical Implications : the inadequacy of current ethical guidelines
• There are strict guidelines in place for psychologists, however they only deal with the immediate needs of participants rather then the group this impacts on in the real world.
• i.e. ethical guidelines don’t ask researchers to consider how their research might be used by others. This is an area that needs considering.
A03 : Ethical Implications : may disadvantage marginalised groups
• It could be argued that our understanding of human behaviour has been lessened by our misinterpretations of, or our failure to include, representative samples.
• This means those groups miss out on the potential benefits of the research. Opens a new ethical issue up.
A03 : Ethical Implications : should socially sensitive research be avoided
• It might be better to leave socially sensitive research on homosexuality, race, gender and addiction, as negative consequences may prevail, however unimportant issues would only be left.
• Sieber and Stanley state that avoiding controversial topics is an avoidance of responsibility. Psychologists have a duty to conduct such research.
A03 : Ethical Implications : engaging with the public and policy makers
• To reduce misuse of data psychologists need to be active in taking responsibility for what happens to their findings. They need to be aware their research might lead to abuse and discrimination.
• The BPS has a press centre with aims to promote evidence based psychological research to the media. But researchers need to see it as part of the research process to promote their research in a socially sensitive way as opposed to neutral.
