Paper 1 - Attachment

Question 1

What is attachment?

Answer 1

Is an emotional bond between two people (two-way process) that endures over time.
Each individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security and attachment in humans takes a few months to develop.
It leads to certain behaviours such as clinging (separation distress) and proximity seeking, and serves the function of protecting an infant (secure base)

Question 2

What is reciprocity?

Answer 2

Care-giver infant interaction is reciprocal (e.g. each person’s interactions affect the other)
Turn taking and responding, eliciting (drawing out) a response from the other but doesn’t necessarily mean responding with the same behaviours.
Two way

Question 3

What is interactional synchrony?

Answer 3

Caregiver and infant signals synchronise (e.g. occur together)
Infant and caregiver mirror each other i.e imitate the same behaviours in a synchronised fashion (in time with each other)
Move in time with each other e.g. both turn heads at same time/both smile at the same time.

Question 4

What is the alert phases?

Answer 4

From birth babies signal when they are ready to interact

Question 5

What is the A01 of Meltzoff and Moore in relation to caregiver - infant interactions?

Answer 5

Observed the beginnings of interactional synchrony infants as young as 2 weeks old.
An adult displayed one of three facial expression or one of three distinctive gestures.
Child’s response was filmed
Findings – babies as young as 12-27 days would attempt to imitate facial and physical gestures.

Question 6

What is examples of reciprocity (alert phases) in relation to caregiver - infant interactions?

Answer 6

Babies have ‘alert phases’ and signal they are ready for interaction
Mothers (typically) pick up on and respond to alertness (2 thirds of time - Feldman and Eidelman 2007)

Question 7

Jaffe 1973 - Example of reciprocity in relation to caregiver - infant interactions

Answer 7

Jaffe (1973) demonstrated that infants coordinated their actions with caregivers in a conversation. From birth babies move in a rhythm when interacting with an adult almost as if they were taking turns, as people do when having a conversation. One person leans forward and speaks and then it’s the other person’s turn = Reciprocity.

Question 8

Brazelton 1979 - Example of reciprocity in relation to caregiver - infant interactions

Answer 8

Brazelton (1979) this rhythm is important for later communication. The regularity of the infant signals allows the caregiver to anticipate future behaviour = lays foundations of attachment.

Question 9

Isabella 89 - Example of intersectional synchrony in relation to caregiver - infant interactions

Answer 9

Isabella (89) observed 30 mothers and infants together and assessed the degree of synchrony.
The researchers also assessed the quality of mother-infant attachment.
They found high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant attachments.

Question 10

A03 : The use of filmed observations (caregiver-infant interactions)

Answer 10

+ Mother-baby interactions are usually filmed from multiple angles – very fine details of behaviour can be recorded and analysed later. Babies do not know they are being observed, so their behaviour does not change in response to observation (an issue for most observational research). This means that studies have good reliability and validity

Question 11

A03 : Problems with testing infant behaviour (caregiver-infant interactions)

Answer 11

• Infants mouths are constantly in motion, the expressions tested occur frequently – this makes it difficult to distinguish between imitated behaviour and general activity. It is also hard to know if a hand movement is a response to the caregiver or a random twitch. This means we cannot be certain that any particular interactions observed between baby and caregiver are meaningful

+ Meltzoff and Moore overcame this issue by filming infants and asking an observer to judge the infants behaviour when they DIDN’T know what behaviour was being imitate – increases internal validity.

Question 12

A03 : Failure to replicate (caregiver-infant interactions)

Answer 12

• Koepke (1983) failed to replicate Meltzoff and Moore study findings, could be as it was less carefully controlled.

Question 13

A03 : Difficulty inferring developmental importance (caregiver-infant interactions)

Answer 13

• Feldman (2012) says that synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time. These can be reliably observed BUT this may not be useful as it does not tell us their purpose. This means that we cannot be certain from observations that reciprocity or synchrony are important in development

Question 14

Who did a study in relation to stages of attachment & what did they do?

Answer 14

Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
Observed 69 babies in Glasgow for 18 months (longitudinal study)
They looked at the interactions between the baby and its caregiver

Question 15

What was the method of Schaffer and Emerson’s study?

Answer 15

60 babies from skilled working class families were observed.
Mothers and babies were visited once a month for the first year, and then
again at 18 months.
They ask mothers questions about how the babies reacted in 7 everyday
separations (e.g. adult leaving the room) – This measured separation
anxiety.
They also assessed how babies reacted to unfamiliar adults (stranger
anxiety).

Question 16

What were the findings of Schaffer and Emerson’s study in relation to stages of attachment?

Answer 16

Between 25-32 weeks of age 50% of babies showed separation anxiety
towards their mother (specific attachment).
This specific attachment was with the caregiver who was most sensitive
to infant signals NOT necessarily who they spent the most time with.
By 40 weeks, 80% of babies had a specific attachment and 30% had
multiple.

Question 17

What are the 4 stages of attachment?

Answer 17

1. Asocial (about birth to 8 weeks)
2. Indiscriminate Attachment (about 2-7 months)
3. Specific Attachment (about 7-12 months)
4. Multiple Attachment (about 1 year onwards)

Question 18

What happens at the asocial stage of attachment?

Answer 18

The behaviour between humans and non-human objects are very similar. Infants can recognise specific faces. They are happier in the presence of humans than when alone, they will smile at anyone and they prefer familiar individuals as well as prefer faces to non-faces.

Question 19

What happens at the indiscriminate stage of attachment?

Answer 19

At this stage they recognise and prefer familiar people. They will smile more at familiar than unfamiliar faces. Infants at this stage have a preference for people rather than inanimate objects BUT they will accept comfort from any adult as they don’t have stranger anxiety.

Question 20

What happens at the specific stage of attachment?

Answer 20

Infant shows a distinct protest when a particular person puts them down (separation anxiety)
They show happiness and joy when that person returns and is comforted by them (Primary Attachment).
They will show stranger anxiety.
Schaffer and Emerson states that the primary attachment isn’t always the person that spends most of the time with the infant. (They concluded it’s the quality of the relationship not quantity. In 65% of children the first specific attachment was to the mum, 30% mum and an object, 3% the father).

Question 21

What happens at the multiple stage of attachment?

Answer 21

Main attachment is formed and a wider circle of multiple attachments depending on consistent relationships.
Schaffer and Emerson found that within one month of becoming attached 29% of the infants had multiple attachments, parent, grandparents, siblings etc, these are secondary attachments. Separation anxiety was displayed in these relationships.
Within 6 months this had risen to 78%.
By 1 year a majority of infants had developed multiple attachments.

Question 22

A03 : Good external validity (stages of attachment)

Answer 22

+ Most observations carried out by parents during normal activities and then reported to
researchers (if observer’s were present, this may have distracted the babies, made them anxious
and potentially changed their natural behaviour). This means that it is highly likely the
participants behaved naturally during the observation, meaning good external validity.
- HOWEVER, data was from mother’s reports of their child. Mothers may have been less sensitive
therefore not reported it = systematic bias – challenges validity.

Question 23

A03 : Biased Sample (stages of attachment)

Answer 23

• All participants from the same district
• Working class population (can it be generalised?)
• Sample form 1960’s (parenting has changed)
• Now more women work, higher care outside the home now AND now more fathers stay at home
  to care for the family than every before (quadrupled since 1960)

Question 24

A03 : Problems studying the asocial stage (stages of attachment)

Answer 24

• The problem at this stage is babies have poor coordination and are immobile. Therefore difficult
  to make judgements from observation, therefore low reliability.

Question 25

A03 : RWA to Day Care (stages of attachment)

Answer 25

+ In the early stages (asocial and indiscriminate) babies can be comforted by any skilled adult, but if
a child starts day care during the stage of specific attachments, care from an unfamiliar adult may
cause distress and longer-term problems
+ This means that Schaffer and Emerson’s stages can help parents making day care decisions

Question 26

A03 : Cultural Variations (stages of attachment)

Answer 26

• Individualistic culture : Western cultures, value independence and individuality. i.e. UK and USA
• Collectivist culture : importance of the group. Characterised by the extent to which things are
  shared, groups live together, share tasks, belongings and childrearing. Value interdependence -
  dependent on one another, multiple attachments are common. I.e. Japan and China
• Sagi (1994) compared sleeping arrangements in communal environments and family-based
  sleeping arrangements (where mother closeness was twice as common). This suggests that the
  stage model (Schaffer and Emerson) applies to individualist cultures only.

Question 27

How does Bowlby describe the role of the father?

Answer 27

1988
Bowlby suggests that fathers can fill a role closely resembling that filled by a mother but this is uncommon. According to Bowlby, a father is more likely to engage in physically active and novel play and is the child’s preferred play companion.

Question 28

How does Schaffer and Emerson describe the role of the father?

Answer 28

1964
- Found that majority of babies attached to mother first at around 7 months (father solely first in
only 3% of cases, father joint first attachment with mother in 27% of cases).
- Additional attachments developed in the proceeding months (4th stage) to secondary
attachments including the father. In 75% of infants studied, by 18 months, they had formed an
attachment to the father (babies protested when father’s walked away, indicating attachment).

Question 29

How does Field describe the role of the father?

Answer 29

1978 - The role as a primary caregiver
- Compared the behaviours of primary caretaker mothers with primary AND secondary caretaker
fathers. Face-to-face interactions were analysed from video footage with infants at 4 months of
age.
- Secondary caregiver fathers engaged more in game playing and held their infants less.
- Primary caretaker fathers engaged in significantly more smiling, imitative grimaces, and imitative
vocalisations and these were comparable with mothers’ behaviour
- These behaviours are related to interactional synchrony and the formational of an emotional
attachment (Isabella et al, 1989)

Question 30

How does Grossman’s describe the role of the father?

Answer 30

2002
- Conducted a longitudinal study of 44 families comparing the role of fathers’ & mothers’
contribution to their children’s attachment experiences at 6,10 and 16 years.
- Quality of infant attachment with mother was related to children’s attachments in adolescence,
fathers attachment less important.
- Therefore, fathers may be less important in long-term emotion development
- But, also found the quality of the fathers PLAY with infants was related to the quality of
adolescent attachments.
- This suggests fathers have a different role in attachment, one that is more to do with play and
stimulation (less to do with emotional care)

Question 31

How does Brown et al. describe the role of the father?

Answer 31

2012
- Investigated father involvement, paternal sensitivity, and father−child attachment security at 13
months and 3 years.
- Results: involvement and sensitivity influenced father−child attachment security at age 3.
- Involvement was a greater predictor of secure attachment when fathers were rated as less
sensitive.
- This research indicates that the gender of a caregiver is not crucial in predicting attachment types,
rather it is the extent of caregiver involvement.

Question 32

A03 : using findings in parenting advice (+)

Answer 32

+ Mothers may feel pressured to stay at home and fathers to focus on work
+ Research on the flexibility of the role of the father can be used to offer reassuring advice to
parents
+ This means that parental anxiety about the role of fathers can be reduced and parenting
decisions made easier

Question 33

A03 : different research questions (-)

Answer 33

• Some researchers look at the father as a secondary figure, others as a primary.
• This means some see the father as acting differently than the mother and a distinct role. Others
  state that the father can take on a maternal role.
• Therefore there is no agreement on the role of the father and psychologists cannot easily answer
  the question: what is the role of the father?

Question 34

A03 : conflicting evidence from different methodologies

Answer 34

• Grossmann et al (2002) suggests fathers have a distinct role in children’s development, involving
  play and stimulation
• However, McCallum and Golombok (2004) found that children without a father do not develop
  differently
• This means the question of whether fathers have a distinctive role remains unanswered
  + It has been found that children growing up in single or same-sex parent families do not develop
  any differently from those in two-parent heterosexual families. Other family structures adapt to
  not having fathers
  + This means that findings may be clear after all – there may be a distinctive role for fathers when
  present, but families adapt to not having one

Question 35

What were the 2 animal studies of attachment?

Answer 35

Lorenz geese study
Harlow’s monkeys study

Question 36

Explain Lorenz (1952) animal study

Answer 36

Animals are not born with a ready made image of parents
Took a clutch of gosling eggs and divided into 2 groups
1 group stayed with natural mother, 1 group put in an incubator
Incubator : first thing they see was Lorenz and they started following him about, mother group saw her first.
Labelled all of them up, then released them later in the lake (1 group followed mother, incubator group followed Lorenz)

Question 37

Explain imprinting in relation to Lorenz

Answer 37

Lorenz (1952) bird species that are mobile from birth attach and follow the first moving object they see. It is important for short term protection and feeding.
Lorenz identified a critical period in which imprinting NEEDS to take place, this can be within a few hours.
He further stated it is important for long term for mating (sexual imprinting) - studies have shown mate choice is related to early imprinting choices.
Lorenz (52) a peacock reared (grew up) in a reptile house at a zoo, first thing it saw was a giant tortoise after hatching. As an adult the peacock would only direct courtship behaviour towards giant tortoise = SEXUAL imprinting.

Question 38

Lorenz : define imprinting, critical period and sexual imprinting

Answer 38

Imprinting - Newly hatched goslings attach to the first moving object they see
Critical Period - Imprinting must occur within a few hours after birth
Sexual Imprinting - Birds show courtship behaviour towards whatever species they imprint on

Question 39

A03 : Lorenz strengths

Answer 39

Guiton (1966) showed this could be yellow rubber gloves on his study with chicks. He later found males tried to mate with the yellow glove later on (early imprinting is linked to reproductive behaviour).

Question 40

A03 : Lorenz weaknesses

Answer 40

• Imprinting is a plastic and forgiving mechanism (Hoffman, 1996)
• Guiton (1966) found that he could reverse the imprinting of the glove on the chicks, if they later
  spent time with their own species.
• Now believed imprinting is like any other learning – it can take place rapidly and is fairly reversible.
• Should take caution generalising animal behaviour to human behaviour.

Question 41

Explain Harlow’s monkeys

Answer 41

Had been conducting research on learning using monkeys.
He noticed when cage was cleaned monkeys became distressed
The cages had sanitary pads at the bottom and the monkeys had become attached as a kind of “security blanket”
Therefore Harlow created two wire mothers
One had a feeding bottle, the other a soft cloth but no food
Monkeys spent most time with the soft cloth mother and would cling to it especially when frightened (only went to feeding one when hungry and went straight back to cloth)

Like Lorenz, Harlow found there was a critical period.
A mother figure had to be introduced within 90 days for an attachment to form.
After this time it was impossible, early deprivation is irreversible.

Question 42

What were the long lasting effects of Harlow’s Monkeys

Answer 42

Harlow (1959) continued his research on these motherless monkeys as they grew up to see if maternal deprivation had a permanent effect.

He noted that the motherless monkeys even those with comfort contact developed abnormally:
They froze or fled when approached by other monkeys.
They did not show normal mating behaviour
They bred less then normal monkey’s (unskilled at mating)
As mothers, they neglected their young, some were attacked and even killed by them.

Question 43

Harlow : Importance of contact comfort, maternal deprivation, critical period

Answer 43

Importance of Contact Comfort - Infant monkeys prefer a soft toy mother to a wire one regardless of which provides milk
Maternal Deprivation - Monkeys brought up without a mother were dysfunctional as adults
Critical Period - Monkeys had around 90 days to attach to a mother figure or they could not form an attachment

Question 44

A03 : Confounding Variables - Harlow lacks internal validity

Answer 44

Weakness
The two wired monkeys varied in other ways, the heads were different = a confounding variable. Could be said the infant monkey preferred the head on the cloth monkey.

Question 45

A03 : Harlow is generalising animal studies to human behaviour

Answer 45

Weakness
Humans differ in important ways to animals – humans governed by conscious decisions. That said Schaffer and Emerson (1964) Found infants were not most attached to feeder but too most responsive who interacted with them most. Supports comfort rather than food.

Question 46

Animal studies linked to human behaviour

Answer 46

Animal studies are a good starting point, but confirmation must come from human research.
The concept of imprinting can explain some human behaviour. For example ‘baby duck syndrome’, in which computer users become attached to their first operating system. This means that imprinting is a meaningful process in humans as well as birds.

Question 47

A03: Ethics of Harlow’s Study

Answer 47

Weakness
This study created long lasting harm as the monkey’s found it difficult to form relationships with peers.
However the knowledge from this study outweighs the consequences - benefits outweigh the costs!

Question 48

A03 : Practical Value of Harlow’s Study

Answer 48

Strength
This research helped social workers to understand risk factors in child neglect and abuse therefore to intervene and prevent it.
Furthermore it has helped attachment in zoos and breeding programmes in the wild for animals.

Question 49

Define imprinting

Answer 49

A phenomenon of newly hatched chicks

Question 50

Define critical period

Answer 50

A time limit by which imprinting or attachment must take place

Question 51

Define maternal deprivation

Answer 51

Lack of a primary attachment figure

Question 52

Define courtship behaviour

Answer 52

Behaviour designed to initiate mating

Question 53

How does the learning theory explain attachment

Answer 53

Proposes that behaviour is learned rather than innate = Nurture (in nature vs nurture debate)

All behaviour (including attachment) is learned through either classical or operant conditioning

Cupboard Love = the belief that children learn to love whoever feeds them!

Question 54

Explain classical conditioning in attachment

Answer 54

Person who feeds (CS) the infant becomes associated with food
The feeder eventually produces the pleasure associated with food
Pleasure now becomes a conditioned response (CR)
This association between an individual and a sense of pleasure is the attachment bond

Before:
NS (mother) -> no response
UCS (milk/food) -> UCR (happy baby)

During:
NS (mother) + UCS (milk/food) -> UCR (happy baby)

After:
CS (mother) -> CR (happy baby)

Question 55

Explain operant conditioning in attachment

Answer 55

Learning also occurs when we are rewarded for doing something - this can be anything such as money or praise
Each time you do something and it results in a pleasant consequence (reinforced)
More probable to repeat behaviour - alternatively punish means less likely to repeat

Positive Reinforcement - Add a pleasant consequence to increase a behaviour (baby cries, receives reward of food, therefore cries more)
Negative Reinforcement - Remove an unpleasant consequence to increase a behaviour (baby cries if mother feeds baby then baby stops crying, mother then therefore responds more)
Food = primary reinforcement, mother = secondary reinforcement, mother becomes rewarding to baby, creating the attachment bond and maintaining it.

Question 56

Explain Dollard and Miller as an example of operant conditioning

Answer 56

Suggested hungry infant feels uncomfortable and this creates a drive to reduce discomfort
When fed the drive is reduced and this produces pleasure (reward)
Food becomes a PRIMARY reinforcer
The person supplying the food is associated with avoiding discomfort and becomes a SECONDARY reinforcer and source of reward in own right
Attachment occurs as child seeks the person who can supply the reward

Question 57

A03 : Counter evidence from animal studies

Answer 57

Lorenz’s geese imprinted on the first moving object they saw and Harlow’s monkeys attached to a soft surrogate in preference to a wire one without milk
In both studies, imprinting/attachment did not occur as a result of feeding
This shows that factors other than feeding are important in attachment formation

Question 58

A03 : Counter evidence from human studies

Answer 58

Schaffer and Emerson showed that for many babies their main attachment was not to the person who fed them
Isabella et al found that interactional synchrony (not related to food) predicted attachment quality
This suggests that factors are more important in attachment formation than feeding

Question 59

A03 : Some elements of conditioning could still be involved

Answer 59

Whilst it is unlikely food is central to attachment, conditioning may still play some role
For example, a baby’s choice of primary attachment figure may be determined by the fact that a caregiver becomes associated with warmth and comfort
This means that conditioning could still be important in choice of attachment figures, though not the process of attachment formation
However, this point of view ignores the fact that babies take a very active role in the interactions that produce attachment. For example, they initiate interactions (Feldman and Eidelman, 2007).This suggests that learning theory may be inappropriate in explaining any aspect of attachment.

Question 60

Define classical conditioning, learning theory, nurture, operant conditioning and cupboard love

Answer 60

Classical Conditioning: learn by association
Learning Theory: food is the most important thing in this theory
Nurture: the side of the debate that states humans are born a blank slate for all experience to be written upon, learn from the environment
Operant Conditioning: learning is strengthened by reinforcement, positive, negative and punishment
Cupboard love: the belief that children will love whoever feeds them

Question 61

What is the second explanation of attachment? (what was it, what was the theory)

Answer 61

Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory of Attachment

Worked as a psychiatrist treating emotionally disturbed children
Observed a number of people who had experienced early separations from family (maternal deprivation hypothesis) suggesting that “a child should experience a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with mother (or substitute) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment”

Attachment is adaptive and innate - Attachment is a behavioural system that has evolved because of its survival value.
Innate drive to be attached = long term benefits.
Attachment and imprinting ensures protection and food.
Behaviour is adaptive - if attach, increases survival and reproductive chances.

Question 62

What are the 4 parts of Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory of Attachment

Answer 62

Monotropic - That one primary attachment is different and more important than others
Social Releasers - Innate (provides survival advantages) behaviours like crying and smiling designed to elicit adult responses
Critical Period - The period after birth in which babies are best adapted to form attachments
Internal Working Model - The mental representation of the child’s first attachment

Question 63

Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory of Attachment : Monotropic

Answer 63

Bowlby theory places high importance on a unique ‘monotropic’ relationship with mother-figure, this is more important than any other.
This need not be the biological mother, but a mother figure.
The more time spent with this primary care giver the better. (Law of continuity: the more constant and predictable a child’s care the better the quality of their attachment. / Law of accumulated separation: the effect of every separation from the mother add up and the safest does is therefore a zero dose.
This person acts as a secure base –from which a child can explore the world and a safe haven to return too.

Question 64

Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory of Attachment : Law of continuity/accumulated separation

Answer 64

Law of continuity: the more constant and predictable a child’s care the better the quality of their attachment

Law of accumulated separation: the effect of every separation from the mother add up and the safest does is therefore a zero dose.

Question 65

Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory of Attachment : Social Releasers

Answer 65

Babies are born with a set of innate Social releasers to facilitate bond, like smiling, cooing, crying and gripping that encourage and activate adult attention.
This is a Reciprocal process, both mother and baby have an innate predisposition to become attached and the social releasers trigger the caregiver response.
Links to Interactional Synchrony

Question 66

Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory of Attachment : Critical Period

Answer 66

Notion of critical/sensitive period around 2 years old when the infant attachment system is active.
This is a period where a child is very sensitive, if no attachment is formed in this time period, a child will find it very difficult to form one later on.

Question 67

Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory of Attachment : Internal Working Model

Answer 67

Bowlby further proposed that a child develops an internal working model, this is a blueprint for future relationships. Starts as a relationship between caregiver and infant, through this relationship develop a model about future emotional relationships. It is called a model as it serves as a model from what to expect from future relationships. (A child that has poor treatment will tend to form further poor relationships as they expect such treatment from others OR to treat others in that way.)
This working model impacts on how the child will also parent. Parents base their parenting behaviour on their own experience of being parented. (It is believed that is why those from functional families go on to have functional families.)

Question 68

A03 (Bowlby’s Monotropic) : Concept of monotropy lacks validity

Answer 68

WEAKNESSES
- The relationship with the primary attachment figure may just be stronger than other attachments rather than different in quality like Bowlby believed
- Other family members may develop attachments with the baby that have the same qualities, such as comfort and a secure base from which to explore
- This means that Bowlby may have been wrong to suggest that there is a unique quality to a child’s primary attachment figure

Question 69

A03 (Bowlby’s Monotropic) : Evidence supports the role of social releasers

Answer 69

STRENGTHS
+ Brazelton et al (1975) instructed primary attachment figures to ignore their babies’ social releasers
+ Babies (who were previously shown to be normally responsive) initially showed some distress, but eventually some curled up and lay motionless
+ This supports the idea that social releasers play an important role in attachment development

Question 70

A03 (Bowlby’s Monotropic) : Evidence supports the role of the internal working model

Answer 70

STRENGTHS
+ The internal working model predicts that patterns of attachment will be passed from one generation to the next
+ Bailey et al (2007) studied 99 mothers. Those with poor attachment to their own parents were more likely to have one-year-olds who were poorly attached
+ This supports Bowlby’s idea of an internal working model of attachment as it is being passed through families

HOWEVER
There are other influences on social development. For example, a baby’s genetically-influenced personality is important in the development of social behaviour, including their later parenting style. This suggest that Bowlby overemphasised the importance of the internal working model in development.

Question 71

A03 (Bowlby’s Monotropic) : General Evaluation

Answer 71

WEAKNESSES
- Bowlby underestimated the role of the father – saw father’s role as primarily economic, the breadwinner and had nothing to do with the upbringing of the child.
- Bowlby’s theory is an outdated sexist view, importance of equal responsibility for childcare in many families/father as primary caregiver nowadays

Question 72

Types of Attachment : What is the strange situation (what was the aim)

Answer 72

Ainsworth et al devised “strange situations” to test nature of attachment, under a controlled observation method.
Aim : see how infants behave under stress and novelty. / Stress created by presence of a stranger and separation of primary caregiver. To test “Stranger anxiety” and “Separation anxiety” / Novel situation encouraging exploration to test “secure base concept”

Question 73

Strange Situation : What did Ainsworth et al do?

Answer 73

• Research room : 9x9 foot marked off via squares to record movement.
• Procedure : 7 episodes designed to highlight certain behaviours
• Data collected every 15 seconds by a group of observers through a two way mirror.
• Researcher notes one of the following behaviours and the intensity on a scale of 1-7 (Proximity
  Seeking behaviours / Exploration & secure base behaviours / Stranger Anxiety / Separation
  Anxiety / Reunion Behaviour)

Question 74

What are the 7 episodes of the strange situation (what happens & what is tested)

Answer 74

(Procedure has 7 episodes, each lasting 3 mins / baby & caregiver enter unfamiliar playroom)

1. Baby encouraged to explore (tests exploration and secure base)
2. Stranger comes in, talks to caregiver and approaches baby (tests stranger anxiety)
3. The caregiver leaves the baby and stranger together (tests seperation & stranger anxiety)
4. Caregiver returns & stranger leaves (test reunion behaviour and exploration/secure base)
5. Caregiver leaves baby alone (tests separation anxiety)
6. Stranger returns (tests stranger anxiety)
7. Caregiver returns & reunited with baby (tests reunion behaviour)

Question 75

Strange Situation : Ainsworth et al Findings

Answer 75

Found similarities and difference in the ways infants behaved.
Similarities:
Exploratory behaviours declined in all infants from episode 2 onwards, amount of crying increased.
Proximity seeking and contact-maintaining behaviour intensified during separation and stranger being present.
Contact-resisting and proximity avoiding behaviours occurred rarely toward the caregiver prior to separation.
Differences :
3 main types of children found (A, B, C). we are going to look at now.

Question 76

What are the 3 types of attachment (A B and C)

Answer 76

Insecure-Avoidant - Type A
Children avoid social interaction and intimacy.
Explore freely but DO NOT seek proximity or secure base behaviour
Little to no reaction when caregiver leaves.
Make little effort to make contact upon reunion, they do not require comfort.
Show little stranger anxiety

Secure Attachment - Type B
Those who have harmonious and cooperative interactions with their caregivers.
They happily explore but often go back to their caregiver
Show moderate separation distress and moderate stranger anxiety
Require and accept comfort from caregiver upon reunion.

Insecure-Resistant - Type C
Seek and reject intimacy and social interaction.
Children seek greater proximity than others, therefore explore less.
High stranger anxiety and separation distress
Resist comfort upon union with caregiver.
Only 3% of BRITISH children classed as type C.

TABLE ON BAMBOO PAPER

Question 77

Key words

Answer 77

Bamboo paper

Question 78

A03 : Predictive Validity

Answer 78

+ Attachment type defined by the Strange situation was a good predictor of later development.
+ McCormick et al (2016) – securely attached infants had better outcomes (academic success, more friends and better romantic relationships)
+ Resistant infants were bullied (Kokkinos 2007), and had adult mental health problems (Ward et al 2006)
+ This is evidence for the validity of the concept because it can explain (predict) future outcomes

• However Although the Strange situation measures something that predicts later development, it may not be measuring genetic differences in anxiety (Kagan 1982). This means the strange situation may not actually measure attachment.

Question 79

A03 : Inter-Rater Reliability

Answer 79

+ Inter-rater reliability (more than one observer) used on ratings used were compared by a panel of experience judges.
+ Behaviour categories were clearly defined, therefore more reliable
+ Ainsworth (1978) found an almost perfect agreement when rating exploratory behaviour – 0.94 agreement (1.00 is perfect).

Question 80

A03 : A culture-bound test

Answer 80

• The Strange Situation test might not have the same meaning in countries outside of Western Europe and the USA where it was create
• Cultural differences in children’s experiences mean they respond differently e.g. Japanese babies show anxiety because they are not used to being left by their caregiver (Takashi 1986)
• This means it is difficult to know what the Strange Situation is measuring in some countries/cultures

Question 81

A03 : A 4th Type of Attachment

Answer 81

• A reanalysis of over 200 Strange Situation videotapes led Main and Solomon (1986) to propose a fourth attachment type.

Disorganised Attachment:
o A lack of consistent patterns of social behaviour.
o Lack coherent strategy for dealing with stress of separation.
o An odd mix of avoidant and resistant.

Question 82

Cultural Varuation : Meta Analysis

Answer 82

Van Ijzebdoorn and Kroonenberg
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) examined 32 studies, in 8 countries, of attachment where the Strange Situation had been used to investigate attachment types.
The 32 studies had data from around 2000 children.
Data Meta-Analysed: results combined from the 32 studies BUT were weighted for sample size.

Question 83

Cultural Variation : Findings

Answer 83

In all countries secure attachment was the most common classification BUT it varied (75% in Britain, 50% in China).
Insecure-Resistant was the least common
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation WITHIN cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures (in USA one study found 46% securely attached, another found 90%)

Question 84

Cultural Variation : Meta-analysis conclusion

Answer 84

The global pattern across cultures appears to be similar to that found in the US.
Supports the idea that secure attachment is best for healthy social and emotional development.
These cross cultural similarities support the view that attachment is an innate and biological process.

Question 85

Cultural Variations : Cross-cultural similarities

Answer 85

Tronick et al (1992) – AFRICA
Studied an African tribe. Infants looked after and breastfed by different women, and slept with their own mother. Infants still showed one primary attachment.

Question 86

Cultural Variations : Cross-cultural differences

Answer 86

Grossmann and Grossmann (1991) GERMANY
German infants classified as insecurely attached. German culture involves keepings some interpersonal distance. Infants do not engage in proximity seeking behaviour in
Strange Situation - therefore labelled insecurely attached.

Question 87

Cultural Variations : Cross-cultural conclusion

Answer 87

Studies suggest despite the fact that there are cultural variations in infant care arrangements are still formed with the infant’s mother. Research shows that there are differences in the patterns of attachment that can be related to differences in cultural attitudes and child rearing.

Question 88

Cultural Variation : Individualist and Collectivist

Answer 88

Individualistic culture - Western cultures, value independence and individuality.
o UK and USA

Collectivist culture - Importance of the group. Characterised by the extent to which things are shared, groups live together, share tasks, belongings and childrearing.
o Value interdependence - dependent on one another.
o Japan and China

Question 89

A03 Cultural Variation : Use of indigenous researchers

Answer 89

+ Indigenous researchers are from the same cultural background as the participants e.g. Grossman et al (1981) used German researchers working with German participants
+ Using indigenous researchers aids communication between researchers and participants and helps prevent misunderstandings e.g. of instructions
+ This means that there is an excellent chance that researchers and participants communicated successfully, increasing the validity of the study

• However this has not been true of all cross cultural attachment research e.g. Americans Morelli and Tronick (1991) investigated the Efe in Zaire. This means that some cross-cultural attachment research may have communication errors and hence lacks validity. (Not all cross-cultural research uses indigenous researchers).

Question 90

A03 Cultural Variation : Confounding Variables

Answer 90

• Studies conducted in different countries may not be matched for sample characteristics e.g. studies in different countries may use children of different ages and social classes
• Environmental variables may also differ e.g. using smaller rooms which might encourage babies to explore more
• This means that studies assessing attachment types carried out in different countries may tell us little about cultural differences in attachment

Question 91

A03 Cultural Variation : Imposed Etic

Answer 91

• Using a test (the Strange Situation) in a different cultural context from the one for which it was designed may be meaningless
• The Strange Situation was designed in the USA where lack of affection at reunion represents insecure attachment. However, in Germany it would be seen as a sign of independence.
• This means that sit may be meaningless to compare attachment behaviours across countries
• This is known as imposed etic

Question 92

A03 Cultural Variation : Competing explanations

Answer 92

Bowlby’s theory that attachment is innate would suggest that secure attachment is the universal norm
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg suggest that the cross cultural similarities they found might be explained by the effects of mass media, which spread ideas and out parenting so that children all over the world are exposed to similar influences.
o Means cultural similarities may not be due to innate biological influences (as Bowlby said) but are because of our increasingly global culture due to MEDIA
o This means that it is hard to know whether Bowlby’s theory is true as there is a credible alternative explanation

Question 93

Maternal Deprivation (Bowlby) : The Value of Maternal Care

Answer 93

Bowlby believed children needed a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with the mother (or substitute) to ensure continuing normal mental health.
This includes emotional and intellectual.
“mother love in infancy and childhood is as important for mental health as are vitamins and proteins for physical health”
Being separate CAN have serious consequences this is known as Maternal Deprivation.

Question 94

Maternal Deprivation (Bowlby) : Separation Vs Deprivation

Answer 94

Separation - the child not being in the presence of the primary attachment figure.
This becomes deprived as the child loses an element of her care.
Brief separations are not significant for development, especially if left with a substitute.
However extended separations can lead to deprivation

Question 95

Maternal Deprivation (Bowlby) : Critical Period

Answer 95

Children denied of such care become emotional disturbed.
This applies to a critical period in development- separation will only have this effect if this happens before the age of 2 ½ , and if NO substitute care is provided. RISK UP TO 5.
Potential damage avoided by appropriate substitute emotional care (male or female).
It is deprivation that causes long term psychological harm - this can be avoided!

Question 96

Maternal Deprivation (Bowlby) : Builds upon Bowlby’s Monotropic theory

Answer 96

Bowlby’s stated the consequences cannot be reversed
Bowlby’s theory of the internal, the internal working model is a template for later relationships (what happens early on is a blueprint for future relationships).
Consequences of maternal deprivation:
o Intellectual = low IQ.
o Emotional = delinquency; affectionless psychopathy - the inability to
experience guilt or strong emotion for others, they become criminal and
cannot understand the feelings of their victims, so lack remorse.

Question 97

Maternal Deprivation (Bowlby) : Aim of 44 Juvenile Thieves

Answer 97

To investigate the long-term effects of maternal deprivation on people in order to see whether delinquents have suffered deprivation.

Question 98

Maternal Deprivation (Bowlby) : Procedure of 44 Juvenile Thieves

Answer 98

Bowlby interviewed 44 adolescents who were referred to a child
protection program in London because of stealing - they were thieves.
Bowlby selected another group of 44 children to act as ‘controls’ -
individuals referred to clinic because of emotional problems, but not yet
committed any crimes.
Bowlby said some of the thieves were affectionless psychopaths – lacked
normal signs of affection, shame or responsibility – enables them to steal.

Question 99

Maternal Deprivation (Bowlby) : Findings of 44 Juvenile Thieves

Answer 99

Table on Maternal Deprivation Doc

Question 100

Maternal Deprivation (Bowlby) : Conclusion of 44 Juvenile Thieves

Answer 100

Affectionless psychopaths show little concern for others and are unable to form relationships.
Bowlby concluded that early separations are linked to affectionless psychopathy (cause mental disorders)

Question 101

A03 Maternal Deprivation : Evidence is flawed

Answer 101

WEAKNESS
44 Juvenile Thieves study is flawed and was open to bias
Bowlby himself assessed both deprivation and psychopathy knowing what he hoped to find - Researcher Bias
Goldfarb’s (1943) study of wartime orphans is flawed because he used traumatised participants who lacked good aftercare - confounding variables
This means that Bowlby originally had no solid evidence on which to base his theory of maternal deprivation

STRENGTH
BUT research with rats shows short separations can harm social development (Levy et al. 2003). This means that there is now some evidence for the theory of maternal deprivation after all

Question 102

A03 Maternal Deprivation : Conflicting evidence

Answer 102

WEAKNESS
Lewis (54) partially replicated the 44 juvenile thieves study on a larger scaled (500 people). She stated that prolonged separation from the mother DID NOT predict criminality. Therefore there may be other factors that affect the outcome of maternal deprivation.

Question 103

A03 Maternal Deprivation : Deprivation vs. Privation (confusion)

Answer 103

WEAKNESS
Michael Rutter (1972) suggested that Bowlby may have got confused with the concept of deprivation.
Rutter distinguished between privation and deprivation.
o Privation: the failure to form any attachment in the first place.
o Deprivation: the loss of the primary attachment figure after attachment
has developed

Question 104

A03 Maternal Deprivation : Real World Application – impact on post war hospital visits

Answer 104

STRENGTH
Robertson (1952) filmed a 2 year old, Laura, during an 8 day period in hospital. she is seen to be frequently distressed and begs to go home.
This work along with Bowlby led to change in the way children are treated in hospital.

Question 105

A03 Maternal Deprivation : Critical period is more of a sensitive period

Answer 105

Koluchova (1976) Czech Twins, fully recovered after being looked after from age 7 by two loving adults. Therefore the critical period is SENSITVE not Critical.

Aged 2 - Identical twin boys locked in cellar and abused for 6 years leading to physical and linguistic problems.
Aged 7 - adopted into a loving family.
Aged 14 - normal behaviour.
Aged 20 - emotionally and socially stable with above average intelligence.

Question 106

Maternal Deprivation : Key Terms (maternal deprivation hypothesis / privation / deprivation)

Answer 106

Maternal deprivation hypothesis: a hypothesis which Bowlby states those that experience early separation may go on to have emotional and social problems later on in life.
Privation: the failure to form any attachment in the first place.
Deprivation: the loss of the primary attachment figure after attachment has developed

Question 107

Effects of Institutionalisation - Romanian Orphans (when where why)

Answer 107

Romania 1990
Former President Nicolai Ceausescu forbade women under 40 with less than four children to use contraception or have an abortion
Many could not afford to keep their children and they ended up in huge orphanages in very poor conditions.
After the 1989 revolution, many of the children were adopted, some to the British, others Canada.

Question 108

Institutionalisation : Rutter (2010) English and Romanian Adoptees ERA (procedure)

Answer 108

Group of 165 Romanian orphans adopted in Britain - Wanted to test to what extent good care could make up for poor early experiences in institutions. Some adopted before 6 months, others all adopted before 4.
Physical, cognitive, and emotional development assessed at age 4, 6, 11 & 15y.

Question 109

Institutionalisation : Rutter (2010) English and Romanian Adoptees ERA (findings)

Answer 109

Upon arrival in the UK, half of the adoptees showed signs of mental retardation & the majority were severely undernourished. At age 11, the mean IQ for orphans adopted before 6 months was 102 compared with 86 for those adopted between 6 months & 2 years, and 77 for those adopted after 2 years. These differences were still there at age 16 (Beckett et al, 2010). Children adopted after 6 months showed signs of disinhibited attachment (showed same affection to strangers and families) whereas those children adopted before 6 months rarely did.

Question 110

Institutionalisation : Rutter (2010) English and Romanian Adoptees ERA (conclusion)

Answer 110

The findings support Bowlby’s view that there is a sensitive period in the development of attachments and a failure to form an attachment before the age of 6 months (and after the age of 2 years) appears to have long-lasting effects.

Question 111

Institutionalisation : Zeanah et al - The Bucharest Early Intervention Project (procedure & findings)

Answer 111

Procedure - 95 children aged 12-31 months who had spent most of their lives in institutional care. Compared to a control group of 50 children that had never been institutionalised. Attachment type was measured using the strange situation & carers were asked about unusual social behaviours.

Findings
o 74% of the control group were deemed to be securely attached
o 19% of the institutionalised group were securely attached
o 65% of the institutionalised group classified with disorganised attachment.
o 44% of the institutionalised groups were disinhibited attachment type

Question 112

Effects of Institutionalisation

Answer 112

Physical Under-development: Gardner (1972) found the lack of emotional care leads to deprivation dwarfism.
Damage to intellectual development: cognitive development is affect by emotional deprivation (can be reversed if adopted before 6 months).
Disinhibited attachment: A form of insecure attachment, a child will treat a stranger with inappropriate familiarity and may be attention seeking.
Poor parenting: Quinton (1984) compared a group of 50 women brought up in institutions with a control group (reared at home). when in their 20’s women reared in institutions experience extreme difficulties acting as parents; their children went on to spend time in care.

Question 113

A03 Institutionalisation : Real World Application

Answer 113

STRENGTH
Today most babies are to be adopted in the first couple of weeks of birth as research shows children and adoptive mothers as just as securely attached as non-adoptive families.
Also it has helped children’s homes, making sure caregiver to child ratio is a lot smaller, and assigning a key worker, to enable normal attachments to develop.
This means that children in institutional care have a chance to develop normal attachments and disinhibited attachment is avoided.

Question 114

A03 Institutionalisation : Fewer confounding variables than other research

Answer 114

STRENGTH
There were many orphan studies before the Romanian orphans became available to study.
Neglect, abuse and bereavement made it hard to observe the effects of institutionalisation.
The children were affected by these confounding variables. Rutter’s study has fewer confounding variables.
This means we can be fairly sure that differences in institutionally-cared-for children are the rest of this type of care (high internal validity)

However, Romanian orphan studies may have new confounding variables because quality of care was so poor, making it hard to separate effects of institutional care from those of poor institutional care. This means that internal validity might not be better than in previous studies after all.

Question 115

A03 Institutionalisation : Lack of data in adult development

Answer 115

WEAKNESS
Its too soon to say for certain whether children suffered permanent effects because we only have data on their development up to their early twenties
Due to when this took place, it will be some time before we have information about some key research questions (e.g. orphans’ ability to form and maintain romantic and parenting relationships)
This means the Romanian orphan studies have not yet yielded their most important findings, some children may ‘catch up’

Question 116

A03 Institutionalisation : Social Sensitivity

Answer 116

Late-adopted children were shown to have low IQ - this might subsequently affect how they are treated by parents, teachers etc. and might create a self-fulfilling prophecy
On the other hand, much has been learned from the Romanian orphan studies that might benefit future institutionalised or potentially institutionalised children
So the potential benefits of the studies probably outweigh their social sensitivity

Question 117

Influence of Early Attachment : Role of Internal Working Model

Answer 117

Early attachment provides blueprint/prototype for later (adult) attachment
Formation of mental representation/schema of first attachment relationship affects and predicts later relationships and own success as a parent
The internal working model is like this - an infant learns about a relationship from experience, the infant learns what relationships are and how partners in a relationship behave towards each other.

A child with bad experiences will bring these bad experiences to a later relationship, meaning they may struggle to even make relationships. They may display type A or C to friends/partners.
If a child has a loving relationship with a reliable caregiver in infancy, What will their later attachments in life by like with friends with a lover?

Question 118

Influence of early attachment : Relationships in Later Childhood

Answer 118

Attachment type is associated with the quality of peer relationships in childhood: while insecurely attached infants struggle. securely attached infants go on to form the best quality friendships (Kerns 1994)
Myron-Wilson and Smith (1998) assessed 196 children’s attachment type and bullying by questionnaire and found that (Insecure-avoidant infants are most likely to be bullied / Insecure-resistant infants are most likely to be bullies / Secure not involved).

Question 119

Influence of early attachment : Hazan and Shaver (1987) procedure and findings

Answer 119

Procedure:
A Love quiz was place in a small town publication, it asked questions about
• current attachment experiences
• attachment history to identify current
• Assessing attachment type by responding to one of three statements that “best describes me”
Questions included attitude towards love (an assessment of the internal working model).
620 responses were analysed, 205 men and 415 women.

Findings:
In terms of attachment style (56 per cent classified themselves as secure, 25 per cent as avoidant and 19 per cent as resistant).
Love experience and attitudes towards love (internal working model) were related to attachment type.
Ainsworth found % of each attachment was 66% secure, 22% avoidant and 12% resistant. Follows same patterns as Hazan and Shaver.

Question 120

Influence of early attachment : Relationships in Adulthood as a Parent

Answer 120

The Internal working model also affects child’s ability to parent (backed up with Harlow and Quinton).
Bailey et al. (2007)
Assessed 99 mothers to their infants AND to their own mothers using the strange situation (mother-infant) and interviews (mother-mother). Found that the majority of the mothers had the same attachment type with their infant as with their own mother.

Question 121

Influence of early attachment : Behaviours influenced by the internal working model

Answer 121

Mental Health: the lack of an attachment during the critical period in development would result in a lack of an internal working model.
Children with attachment disorder have no preferred attachment figure, an inability to interact and relate to others is evident before 5 as well as experience of severe neglect or change in caregivers.
It used to be called attachment disorder but now it is a distinct psychiatric disorder (on DSM).

Question 122

A03 : Influence of early attachment : Strong research support

Answer 122

STRENGTH
Many studies show a link between infant attachment type and later development
A review by Fearon and Roisman (2017) concluded that infant attachment influenced development in many ways
Disorganised attachment was most predictive e.g. of later mental disorder
This means that insecure attachment appears to convey a disadvantage for children’s development

However, not all evidence supports the link between infant attachment and later development. For example the Regensburg longitudinal study (Becker-Stoll et al. 2008) found no evidence of continuity of attachment type from 1 to 16 years. This means that it is not clear how strongly attachment influences later development

Question 123

A03 : Influence of early attachment : Weaknesses

Answer 123

Zimmerman (2000) assessed infant attachment type and adolescence attached to parents. There was very little relationship between the quality of infant and adolescent attachment.
Most of the assessment methods rely on self-report to assess the quality of relationships. (Less validity)
Retrospective data, looking back in adulthood at childhood relationships with a primary attachment figure may cause recollection problems. (Less validity)

Question 124

A03 : Influence of early attachment : Research is correlated

Answer 124

WEAKNESS
Correlation therefore we cannot claim that the relationship between early attachment and later love styles is one of cause and effect. It could be an innate temperament. (Temperament hypothesis - This may affect their issues (good or bad) with relationships later in life. Temperament is an intervening variable).

Question 125

A03 : Influence of early attachment : Confounding variables

Answer 125

WEAKNESS
Some studies do make assessments of infant attachment and follow up children, assessing their later development. However, these studies may be affected by confounding variables – for example, parenting style and personality may affect both attachment and later development. This means that we can never be entirely sure that it is infant attachment and not some other factor that is influencing later development

Question 126

A03 : Influence of early attachment : Extra evaluation

Answer 126

Clark and Clark (1998) the influence of infant attachment on later relationships are probabilistic, people are not doomed to have bad relationships due to early attachments, they just have a greater risk.
Bowlby exaggerated the significance of the early relationships on later relationships.
Could lead to self-fulfilling prophecy
Knowing someone’s attachment type may do more harm than good