Paper 2 - Approaches

Question 1

What is introspection?

Answer 1

Looking into the process of examining one’s own thought processes and emotional states

Question 2

What are 5 key facts about Wilhelm Wundt?

Answer 2

1. Published the first book on psychology ‘Principles of Psychological Psychology’
2. Opened the first psychology lab in Leipzig Germany
3. Considers to be the ‘father of psychology’
4. His approach studied the structure of the human mind by breaking down behaviours into their basic elements
5. Key date for him is 1873

Question 3

What is in-depth information about introspection?

Answer 3

Was pioneered by Wundt (1st systematic attempt to study mind). Let to identifying the structure if consciousness by breaking into the basic structures (thoughts, images and sensations). Trained researched to examine their feelings, emotions and sensations when exposed to stimuli. Provided insight into mental processes (perception, reaction and time). Watson (1913) argues introspection is subjective

Question 4

What does objective mean?

Answer 4

Researchers do not let preconceived ideas influence their data collection. They only record what is observable to all.

Question 5

What does systematic mean?

Answer 5

Experiments and observations are carried out in an orderly way which allows them to be replicated so that results can be assessed for reliability.

Question 6

What does falsifiable mean?

Answer 6

All theories/hypotheses are open to falsification. If results are not repeatable they are not reliable and cannot be accepted to be universally true.

Question 7

What are strengths of introspection and psychology becoming a science?

Answer 7

Psychology became classed as a science because the experiments procedures were standardised and all participants received same info and tested in same way (therefore Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to the later scientific approaches in psychology that were to come)
Modern psychology can claim to be scientific (same aims as natural sciences, describe, understand, predict and control behaviour. The learning, cognitive and biological approaches all use scientific methods). Throughout the 20th century and beyond, psychology established itself as a science.

Question 8

What are weaknesses of introspection and psychology becoming a science?

Answer 8

Some aspects are still subjective and unscientific (Watson argued it studied private mental processes that cannot be objectively studied as it isn’t observable, ppts may not give accurate responses). Introspection has potential for investigator bias (Wundt trained his ppts so maybe share same ideas). Some think psychology shouldn’t be scientific due to better approaches like humanism and psychodynamic)

Question 9

What is the behaviourist approach?

Answer 9

Everyone is born as a blank state a ‘tabula rasa’ and is 10l% nurture (learnt from environment). In order for psychology to be a science it should focus on observable behaviour which can be objectively measured, rather than on things like cognitive processes which can only be inferred (rejected the idea of introspection).

Question 10

Classical Conditioning Diagram with examples and case study

Answer 10

Bamboo paper

Question 11

What is Operant Conditioning?

Answer 11

How a consequence encourages people to either repeat or not repeat a behaviour

Question 12

What is Classical Conditioning?

Answer 12

Learning through association

Question 13

What is positive reinforcement?

Answer 13

Add a pleasant consequence to increase a desired behaviour

Question 14

What is negative reinforcement?

Answer 14

Take away an unpleasant consequence to increase a desired behaviour

Question 15

What is punishment?

Answer 15

Add something unpleasant or take away something pleasant to decrease an unwanted behaviour

Question 16

What do positive, negative, reinforcement and punishment mean?

Answer 16

Positive - To add
Negative - To take away
Reinforcement - To increase behaviour
Punishment - To decrease behaviour

Question 17

What is the example for operant conditioning?

Answer 17

Skinner’s research - The Skinner Box
Lever for food pellet (positive reinforcement)
Lever to avoid electric shock (negative reinforcement)

Question 18

What are some strengths of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 18

Principles have been applied to broad range of real life scenarios
Token economy rewards behaviour with tokens ged for privileges (prisons, psychiatric wards)
Increases value if behaviourist because widespread application
Uses well controlled research with careful measurement of observable behaviour in controlled lab settings
Has broken down behaviours into stimulus-response units and studied casual relationships (behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility)

Question 19

What are some weaknesses of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 19

Form of environmental determinism
Sees all behaviours as past experiences + ignores any influence that free will may have on behaviour
Skinner suggests free will is an illusion (may choose to do it but our past conditioning determines outcome)
Ignores influence of conscious decision making processes in behaviour
May oversimplify learning and ignore important influences on behaviour (e.g. thoughts)
Suggests learning is more complex then this suggests

Question 20

What is the social learning theory?

Answer 20

Behaviour learnt through observation and imitation of role models (vicariously)
Role models usually have similar traits or seen as attractive or have high status
Imitation occurs if the seen behaviour is rewarded, it does not need to be direct (vicarious reinforcement)
Observers store a mental representation of the behaviour, as well as the consequences
Imitation occurs when suitable circumstances arise
Approach uses laboratory experiments and humans to investigate observational learning and behaviour in humans

Question 21

Differences between social learning and behaviourism?

Answer 21

SLT suggest that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation and modelling
Theory is different to behaviourism as there is a focus on meditation processes (what is happening in someone’s mind between stimulus and response and vicarious reinforcement (learning from others))
Means it is less reductionist too

Question 22

What is attention (learning of behaviour)?

Answer 22

The observe must pay attention to a particular behaviour

Question 23

What is retention (learning of behaviour)?

Answer 23

A mental representation of the behaviour is stored in order for it to be later replicated (must be remembered)

Question 24

What is reproduction (performance of behaviour)?

Answer 24

The ability of the observer to perform the observed behaviour. Our psychical and mental abilities will determine which behaviours we reproduce (can we physically do it?)

Question 25

What is motivation (performance of behaviour)?

Answer 25

The rewards and punishments that follow a behaviour will determine whether the observer reproduces the behaviour (is the behaviour rewarded? Would you copy it?)

Question 26

What is imitation?

Answer 26

It is copying behaviour and is most often an efficient way of learning complex behaviours. NO special relationship between the imitator and the person being imitated. Simple observation of the behaviour can be sufficient for learning to take place.

Question 27

What is reinforcement in relation to the social learning theory?

Answer 27

Behaviour is more likely to be imitated if it is seen as rewarding. The reward may be indirect, through vicarious reinforcement. Learning occurs through observation of the consequence of actions for other people. (reward may just be that you see they are happy).

Question 28

What is identification?

Answer 28

A child sees himself/herself as somehow similar to a specific person who is seen as possessing attractive/rewarding qualities. The child experiences a form of attachment to this person and aspires to be like them. Some form of relationship between the imitator and imitated.

Question 29

What is modelling from the observers and the role models perspective?

Answer 29

From the observer’s perspective, ‘modelling’ is imitating the behaviour of a role model
From the role model’s perspective, ‘modelling’ is demonstrating behaviour that may be imitated

Question 30

What is the cognitive approach?

Answer 30

The human mind is studied indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside someone’s mind by studying their behaviour.
The cognitive approach is different to the behavioural approach because it studies ‘private’ internal mental processes that cannot be observed.

Question 31

What are the key assumptions of the cognitive approach?

Answer 31

• The human mind is studied indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside someone’s mind by studying their behaviour.
• Well controlled laboratory studies are used to investigate what we are thinking, and how this shapes behaviour.
• Use the analogy that the mind is like a computer

Question 32

What is an example of a typical cognitive experiment?

Answer 32

Experimental situations used to work out what thought processes are occurring from the behaviour elicited in an example (e.g. how aware are you?). Classical conditioning experiment used to test principle of perception (how much we are unaware of in our visual field?) differs person - person
Conclusion? Focused attention means we miss out on a lot
Application? EWT

Question 33

What is the difference between theoretical and computer models?

Answer 33

Theoretical - Models to explain mental processes. They are simplified, diagrammatic representations of a cognitive process. These are abstract. Information flows through a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval e.g. the multi-store model of memory
Computer - Models to explain mental processes. It refers to programmes that can be run on a computer to imitate the human mind (e.g. conversational machines to deal with consumer enquiries). By running such a programme psychologists can test their ideas about information processing

Question 34

What are schemas?

Answer 34

Ways to organise and store thoughts and info in your mind about ourselves and our world around us. They are developed through experiences.When we take in info we often link it to previous experiences.

Question 35

What is the rat man experiment?

Answer 35

The group who were shown photos of people were more likely to see a man whereas the group who were shown animals were more likely to see a rat. This is due to opening our schemas which alter our perception of an event.

Question 36

Emergence of cogntive neuroscience?

Answer 36

Who? Cognitive neuroscience is a discipline that is a combination of several disciples: cognitive psychologists, cognitive science and neuroscience.
Cognitive science is different to cognitive psychology since it considers physiological reasons (not just psychological reasons) for thought and behaviour.
Why? Focus on looking for a biological basis for behaviour. This discipline has emerged as technology has advanced. Brain imaging techniques (PET, MRI and fMRI) have been used to map brain areas to specific cognitive functions by systematically observing and then describing the neurological basis of mental processes.
What? Brain imaging techniques have identified the location of several brain structures and functions e.g. low activity in the limbic system is associated with aggression.

Question 37

Strengths of the cognitive approach?

Answer 37

-Uses scientific and objective methods
- Psychologists used controlled + rigorous methods (e.g. lab studies so can infer cognitive processes at work)
- Cognitive + biological psychology come together (cognitive neuroscience), enhance scientific basis of study (study of mind established a credible, scientific basis)
-Applied to everyday life + is dominant in psychology today as has been applied to wide range of practical and theoretical context (e.g. AI and robots, treatment of depression, improving eyewitness testimony)

Question 38

Weaknesses of the cognitive approach?

Answer 38

-However use of inference means can occasionally be too abstract and theoretical. Researchers often use artificial stimuli too (such as word lists). Therefore may lack validity and not represent everyday experiences.
- Approach based on machine reduction
- Similarities between human mind and computers but computer analogy has been criticised (e.g. emotion + motivation have been shown to influence accuracy of recall, eyewitness accounts : factors are not considered within the computer analogy)
- Suggests machine reductionism may weaken validity

Question 39

What is the biological approach?

Answer 39

Personality is influenced by biological factors (e.g. genetics and biochemistry) and certain traits are influenced by these factors.

Question 40

Info about genetic and the biological approach

Answer 40

Each person has around 100,000 genes & each individual (apart from identical twins) have unique genotypes (genetic make up occurring at conception)
Monozygotic (Mz) - 100% same
Dizygotic (Dz) - 50% same genes (non identical twins/siblings)

Question 41

Info about the central nervous system and the biological approach

Answer 41

Most actions and reactions are generated from the central nervous system (brain & spinal cord), therefore the functioning of the brain is highly studied in relation to behaviour.

Question 42

Info about the chemistry of the body and the biological approach

Answer 42

Neurotransmitters found in the brain and hormones found in the body influence a person’s reactions to the environment, and therefore determine a lot of our behaviours.

Question 43

Info about evolution and the biological approach

Answer 43

In psychology we consider whether behaviours we see today may once have been adaptive, i.e. helped us to survive and reproduce. The theory of natural selection suggests that any behaviour that ensures survival and reproduction will be passed onto future generations. (e.g. males used to see aggression as a positive ‘survival of the fittest‘).

Question 44

Info about inheritance and the biological approach

Answer 44

Passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through genes, is the reason why offspring ‘take after’ their parents in physical & psychological traits. Genes carry an instruction for a characteristic (e.g. intelligence, temperament), but how this characteristic develops depends on how gene interacts with other genes, and how environment interacts with expression of genes.

Question 45

What is a genotype?

Answer 45

An individual’s genetic make-up, which occurs at conception and provides a unique genetic code for how each individual will develop (apart from identical twins).

Question 46

What is a phenotype?

Answer 46

The way the genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics.
- Only some genes carried in the genotype will be expressed in the phenotype. This is because they are influenced by environmental factors. (Identical twins could have different phenotypes)

Question 47

Nature vs nurture & monozygotic vs dizygotic twins

Answer 47

The extent to which a characteristic determined by genes or environment is known as the nature – nurture debate in psychology

Through the direct comparison of monozygotic and dizygotic twins.
• The more that a trait is influenced by genes, the greater its heritability. This is expressed through a concordance rate.

Question 48

Schizophrenia example/results in relation to the biological approach

Answer 48

General population - 1% chance you have it too
Dz - 17% chance you have it too
Mz - 48% chance you have it too
(Proving schizophrenia is genetically and environmentally influenced)

Question 49

Buss (97) & Darwin (1859) case studies

Answer 49

Buss (97) studied 37 different cultures and found universal similarities in mate preferences.

Darwin (1859) - Proposed the theory of natural selection
- Individuals within a species differ within their characteristics & behaviour. Some of this variation is inherited.
- Individuals must compete with each other, those who survive the competition go on to reproduce. As such, these individuals have behaviours which strengthen survival (than those who were defeated).
- These behaviours are passed onto offspring and become more widespread in the population (known as natural selection).

Question 50

Strengths of the biological approach

Answer 50

-Biological approach has real-world applications
-Understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain led to using psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders
E.g. Drugs that treat clinical depression increase levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin of the synapse and reduce depressive symptoms.
(People will depression able to manage condition and live relatively normal life, rather than confined to hospital as result of our understanding of neurochemistry)
-Uses scientific methods
-To investigate both genetics & neurochemical factors, approach makes use of range of precise and objective methods
Include scanning techniques (e.g. MRI), which access biological processes in ways that are not open to bias. This means is based on objective and reliable data

Question 51

Weaknesses of the biological approach

Answer 51

-However antidepressant drugs don’t work for everyone. Cipriani et al (2018) compared 21 drugs and found wide variation in effectiveness. Challenges value of biological approach as suggest brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases of depression.
-Biological explanations are determinist
-See human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control
-However, the way genotype is expressed (phenotype) is heavily influenced by the environment. Not even genetically identical twins look and think exactly the same. Suggests biological view is too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment.

Question 52

What are the 2 connected systems that make up the nervous system?

Answer 52

Central Nervous System (CNS) - Brain & spinal cord, brain is centre of conscious awareness, cerebral cortex highly developed & distinguishes our higher order mental functions from animals. Spinal cord is extension of brain, responsible for reflex actions such as pull hand away from hot iron. Passes messages to and from brain.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Transmits messages via neurons to and from the CNS, made up of
Autonomic nervous system = governs vital functions in body such as breathing, HR, digestion, sexual arousal and stress response. Automatic, subdivided into 2 further systems involved in fight or flight
Semantic nervous system = controls muscle movement and receives info from sensory receptors

Question 53

Key info about brain

Answer 53

85% total mass of brain made up of cerebrum
Outer layer of cerebrum called cerebral cortex, controls higher order function (thoughts/language)
Cerebrum divided into two halves (hemispheres), which divides into 4 lobes
Left hemisphere controls right side of body, Vice versa

Question 54

What are the 4 lobes in the brain?

Answer 54

Frontal - functions include speech, thought and learning
Temporal - hearing and memory
Parietal - sensory info such as touch, temperature and pain
Occipital - processes visual info
(Label each lobe on brain - bamboo paper)

Question 55

Info about glands in relation to the endocrine system

Answer 55

Endocrine system works alongside nervous system to control vital functions in body through action of hormones
Works more slowly then NS & glands throughout body that produce hormones
Pituitary gland (key endocrine gland in brain) known as master gland controls release of hormones from all other endocrine glands in body

Question 56

Info about hormones in relation to the endocrine system

Answer 56

Are secreted in bloodstream & affect any cell in body that had a receptor for particular hormone
E.g. thyroxine produced by thyroid gland increases metabolic rates which affects growth rates

Question 57

Info about fight & flight in relation to the endocrine system

Answer 57

Endocrine system & autonomic nervous system work in parallel (e.g. fight or flight)
Stressor is perceived by hypothalamus activates pituitary (sympathetic nervous system is aroused)
Adrenaline released from adrenaline medulla into bloodstream, caused changes (e,g. Increases HR, dilation of pupils, decreased saliva production, etc). Response is immediate and automatic the instant threat is perceive. Once threat passed, parasympathetic nervous system takes over, returns body to resting state (rest and digest)

Question 58

What are the changes for sympathetic state & parasympathetic state?

Answer 58

Bamboo paper

Question 59

Info about neurons & synaptic transmission

Answer 59

100 billion nerve cells (neurons) in human nervous system, 80% of neurons are in the brain. Signals are transmitted electrically and chemically and are the primary form of communication

Question 60

What are the 3 types of neurons?

Answer 60

Sensory - Carry messages from the PNS to CNS. Have long dendrites & short axons
Relay - Connect sensory to motor or other relay. Have shirt dendrites & short axons
Motor - Connect CNS to effectors (muscles/glands). Have short dendrites & long axons
(Label diagram - bamboo paper)

Question 61

FILL IN THE GAPS : When a _ is in a _ _ it is _ _, when it is _ it becomes _ _ for a _ _ causing an _ _ to occur (this creates an _ _ that travels down the _ towards the end of the _

Answer 61

Neuron
Resting state
Negatively charged
Activated
Positively charged
Split second
Action potential
Electrical impulse
Axon
Neuron

Question 62

What is synaptic transmission?

Answer 62

Each neuron is separated from the next by an extremely tiny gap called the synapse. Signals within the neurons are transmitted electronically, but the signals between the neurons are transmitted chemically

Question 63

What is the influence of neurochemistry on the brain?

Answer 63

Nerve impulse reaches end of a neurons, chemical (neurotransmitter) is released. Neurotransmitters carry signals between neurons across synapse. Several neurotransmitters play role in the way we behave, learn, feel, sleep, mental stability, etc
(Diagram on bamboo paper)

Question 64

What is dopamine?

Answer 64

Excitatory neurotransmitter
Involved in movement, attention, learning and motivation
Too little = some forms of depression as well as muscular stiffness and tremors in Parkinson’s disease
Too much = some symptoms of schizophrenia

Question 65

What is serotonin?

Answer 65

Inhibitory neurotransmitter
Involved in regulating mood, sleep, appetite
Too little = associated with depression, anxiety, impulsivity and aggression

Question 66

Who is Sigmund Freud in relation to the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 66

Austrian neurologist & psychiatrist who developed the therapy ‘psychoanalysis’, which deals with conflicts within the mind that have developed through traumatic experiences.
He challenged the popular biological approach to psychopathology at the time by saying that abnormal behaviour is caused by unconscious, underlying psychological forces and motives.
Originally trained as a doctor before a psychologist, Once an advocate and avid user of cocaine, Forced to leave home in Austria when the Nazi’s invaded (all sisters died in concentration camps), Says for short period of time (little boys have repressed sexual desires for their mothers, and little girls for their fathers), Developed a ‘talking therapy’ known as psychoanalysis

Question 67

What are the 5 main assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 67

Unconscious mind = driving force behind much of our behaviour (if have behavioural problems must delve into unconscious mind).
Instincts/drives = motivate our behaviour. Driven by instincts as go through a series of stages of development for behaviour and personality.
Early childhood experience = crucial in making us the person that we are. Traumatic events can ‘resurface’ in adulthood. Ego not fully developed.
Interactionist (nature and Nurture) = Focuses on instinctual (innate) drives (Eros & Thanatos), childhood experiences shape adult personality.
Freud believed that life was built around tension and pleasure = this tension was due to the build- up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure came from its discharge.

Question 68

What are the 3 levels of Freud’s Iceberg metaphor for the human mind?

Answer 68

Conscious - The part of the mind we are aware of (everyday thoughts and feelings)
Preconscious - Thoughts and memories not accessible at all times, but easily recalled (Ego)
Unconscious - Deep dark shameful parts that hold repressed thoughts, memories and feelings. This can include traumatic/unpleasant memories. Even though repressed they drive much of our behaviour (superego & Id)

Question 69

What is the Freudian slip & give an example?

Answer 69

An unintentional error regarded as revealing subconscious feelings
Known as faulty actions by Freud, He deemed them notable for revealing an unconscious thought, belief, wish, or motive.
E.g. calling your new girl/boyfriend your ex’s name

Question 70

What are the tripartite personality mind?

Answer 70

Id (forms from birth-18 mths) - unconscious, primitive and destructive. It’s the ‘pleasure principle’ as it demands immediate satisfaction and is childlike, selfish and hedonistic.
Ego (forms 18mths-3yrs old) - known as the ‘reality principle’. It’s our consciousness and ability to think rationally. It arbitrates between the demands of the Id and Superego.
Superego (develops around the age of 5) - known as ‘morality principle’ that develops through socialisation. Opposite to the Id as it feels morality, however, it is rigid, punishing and repressive so can create neurosis such as anxiety, phobias and OCD.

Question 71

How are the tripartite personalities formed?

Answer 71

These 3 parts of our personality are shaped through experiences and will affect how our personality develops and how we behave. It’s believed most of our psychological development is formed prior to the age of six.

Question 72

What did Freud claim about the psychosexual stages of development?

Answer 72

Freud also claimed that children go through stages of psychosexual development: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. If conflicts that arise at each stage are not resolved adequately then a child will become fixated at that stage and as a result psychological or behavioural problems may occur later in life.
Each stage represents the focus for pleasure (libido) from different parts of the body

Question 73

What are the 5 stages of psychosexual stages of development (describe, age, personality structure)

Answer 73

Oral (0-1/18 months) - Main source of pleasure is mouth, pleasure from sucking & biting. Mother’s breast can be the object of desire. Id structure
Anal (1/18 months-2/3years) - Focus of pleasure is anus, pleasure from withholding & expelling faeces. Coincides with when most kids potty train. Ego structure
Phallic (3-6 years) - Focus is own genitals & is aware of anatomical sex differences (boys Oedipus & girls electra). Superego structure (through identification with same sex parent)
Latent (6-12 years) - Sexual desires repressed as libido is dormant. Calm before the storm,
Genital (adolescents-adulthood) - Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather then self pleasure like in phallic stage. Sexual desires become conscious alongside puberty.

Question 74

What are the fixations of the psychosexual stages & what causes them to form?

Answer 74

Oral - Fixations caused by insufficient breastfeeding or too much. Can result in being orally passive (dependent, inactive, gullible) or orally aggressive. Oral fixations (smoking, nail biting, sarcastic, critical)
Anal - caused by strict potty training or intense pleasure associated with going to the toilet. Anally expulsive (thoughtless, messy, generous, shows emotion easily, rebellious). Anally retentive (neat, organised, tight with money, perfectionist, obsessive).
Phallic - Fixations result in phallic style personality (self assured, vain, reckless, impulsive, narcissistic)
Latent - Fixations can result in lack of libido in adulthood
Genital - No fixations occur and no effect on adult personality. Person should be sexually matured and mentally healthy. Can be difficulty for,img heterosexual relationships.

Causes them to form - If the needs of the individual are not met at a particular stage, this leads to frustration. A person’s needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence.

Question 75

What is the Oedipus complex?

Answer 75

Boys develop intense sexual feelings towards their mother and resent their fathers for monopolising her time (fathers are seen as a love rival!).
Fearing that their fathers will castrate them if they realise this (‘castration anxiety’), boys repress their sexual feelings for their mothers and instead befriend their fathers to reduce this anxiety. This is done by taking on his values and beliefs through an ACTIVE identification process (the Oedipus complex is resolved and a boy begins to develop his superego).

Question 76

What is the case of little hans?

Answer 76

The Case of Little Hans (1909) - Hans (a 5 yr old) had a phobia of horses, and Freud explained his phobia by …
1. Hans was fascinated with his penis. He noticed that many animals had larger penises than him.
This interest in penises indicated that he was in the phallic stage of development.
2. Hans’ father went away and he enjoyed his mothers attention. When he returned Hans was
jealous. This was evidence of the Oedipus complex.
3. Hans felt a sexual attraction for his mother and saw his father as a rival. This was evidence that
Hans experienced castration anxiety.

None of Freud’s experiments have any evidence

Question 77

What is the Electra complex?

Answer 77

It is during the Phallic stage of development that girls realise they are simply castrated males
They believe their mothers have castrated them, and so they develop penis envy (around age 3).
When that desire is not fulfilled it is expressed through the desire to have a baby instead.
Little girls develop sexual desires for their fathers but these are repressed in favour of identifying with her mother.
This is done PASSIVELY – the girl accepts her role as a girl due to already losing their penis.
Freud was highly sexist and believed females were lazy and useless

Question 78

What is the significance of the Oedipus and Electra complexes?

Answer 78

These complexes occur at the Phallic stage
If successfully resolved, boys strongly identify with their fathers which allows for the creation of their superego (morality)
Freud said girls have an under-developed superego as their identification with their mother is weaker (as there’s no real motivation) and so females are morally inferior to men!!
If there is a lack of positive parental figure at the phallic stage, a child has no one to identify with and so has an under-developed conscience.

Question 79

What are the defence mechanisms in relation to the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 79

The constant disagreements between the id and the superego can lead to a lot of anxiety. E.g. You want that bar of chocolate (id) but you know you’re meant to be on a diet(superego) – you feel guilty if you have it but unsatisfied if you don’t – anxiety either way! So the ego develops various methods of defending ourselves from being overwhelmed – for example, you tell yourself that it’s ok to eat the chocolate because it’s good for you (rationalisation).
We all use defence mechanisms on a daily basis. Anxiety weakens the ego so defence mechanisms are needed to protect it.
They are used unconsciously – we aren’t aware of what we’re doing.
They all involve some distortion of reality and as a long term solution can lead to damage to our psychological health.

Question 80

What are the 3 defence mechanisms?

Answer 80

Repression = forcing a distressed memory out of the conscious mind.
Denial = refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality.
Displacement = transferring feeling from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target.
(Examples on Showbie, psychodynamic approach 2)

Question 81

What are the strengths of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 81

-The psychodynamic approach introduced psychotherapy. Freud’s psychoanalysis was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically.
Psychoanalysis claims to help clients deal with problems by providing access to their unconscious, using techniques such as dream analysis. Therefore psychoanalysis is the forerunner to many modern-day ‘talking therapies’ e.g. counselling.
-The psychodynamic approach has explanatory power. Freud’s theory is controversial but it has had a huge influence on Western contemporary thought. It has been used to explain a wide range of behaviours (moral, mental disorders) and drew attention to the influence of childhood on adult personality. This suggests that, overall, the psychodynamic approach has had a positive influence on psychology and modern-day thinking.

Question 82

What are the weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 82

-However, whilst psychoanalysis is claimed to be successful for clients with mild problems, it is not appropriate (and even harmful) for more serious mental disorder such as schizophrenia. Therefore, Freudian therapy and theory may not apply to mental disorders where a client has lost touch with reality.
-The psychodynamic approach includes untestable concepts. Karl Popper (philosopher of science) argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification (as it cannot be disproved).
-Many of Freud’s concepts, such as the Id or the Oedipus complex, occur at an unconscious level making them difficult, if not impossible, to test. This means that Freud’s ideas lack scientific rigour and the theory is pseudoscience (‘fake’ science) rather than real science.

Question 83

What are the main assumptions of the humanistic approach?

Answer 83

Every person is unique - As such humanistic psychologists do not construct general laws/principles to explain human behaviour.
We have free will - Although there are some constraints on us (social rules, laws, morals) we can choose how we behave, and we are in control of our behaviour. We are therefore in control of how our lives develop and progress.
People should be viewed holistically - When studying a person both their past and present situations should be taken into account.
A scientific method to studying human behaviour is not appropriate - Scientific methods are objective and humans are subjective beings, with unique
experiences. These unique experiences are ignored when humans are studied experimentally.

Question 84

Who is Maslow and what is his hierarchy of needs?

Answer 84

Maslow - Psychologist who studies positive human qualities and the lives of exemplary people. In 1954, Maslow created the hierarchy of needs and his book motivation and personality
Hierarchy of needs - A pyramid with 5 levels, starting at the bottom up, they are (physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualisation)

Question 85

What are the 5 stages of the hierarchy of needs and examples of each?

Answer 85

Bottom -> Top (top is the biggest luxury, bottom is a necessity)
Physiological - breathing, food, water, oxygen, sleep, homeostasis, excretion, sex
Safety - security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality, of family, of health, of property, freedom from fear, protection, stability
Love/belonging - family, friendship, intimate relationships, acceptance by others
Esteem - self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of/by others, recognition by others, status
Self-actualisation - morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts, reaching potential

Question 86

What is self-actualisation?

Answer 86

A person’s motivation to reach his or her full potential. As shown in the pyramid, a person’s basic needs must be met before self-actualisation can be achieved.

Question 87

What happens if the needs are/aren’t met at each stage of the hierarchy of needs?

Answer 87

1st are met, 2nd aren’t met
Physiological needs - (no cravings, higher needs present themselves), (begin to crave food & water)
Need for safety - (experience physical security. Safety needs decrease), (become anxious & display fight or flight behaviour)
Need for love/belonging - (demonstrate mutual love, trust, freedom, high needs present themselves encourage to progress), (be lonely, withdrawal & rejected, show hostility to out groups)
Need for esteem - (confident, content, self-belief, respect, step out comfort zone, higher Ned’s present encourage progress), (fearful of criticism, failure, risk, inferior, helpless & frustration towards those who withhold respect, envious, bitter and arrogant, attention seeking, withdrawal)
Self-actualisation - (desire to develop, creative, positive, energetic, desire to contribute, live curiously, independently & develop identity), (view life meaningless, restless & bored, avoid growth & development)

Question 88

What does the hierarchy of needs pyramid mean?

Answer 88

Needs at the bottom are known as ‘deficiency needs’ as they are designed to reduce inadequacies, whereas the top levels are ‘growth needs’ as they are designed to promote personal growth.
These needs are like vitamins. We can never be healthy without them and a long-term ‘deficiency’ can encourage mental health problems.
You need to satisfy lower level needs to move upwards.
Maslow suggests that moments of achievement, ecstasy or elation were when all needs were met. These are ‘peak experiences’.
Negative life experiences such as job loss, or divorce can cause fluctuations between the levels.

Question 89

What is self-actualisation (Maslow)?

Answer 89

Represents the uppermost level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (all other needs must be met before self actualisation is possible)
An ultimate feeling of well being and satisfaction, a feeling of ‘completeness’
We all have an innate drive to self-actualise and achieve this in our own individual ways.
There is a positive correlation between an individual’s level of self actualisation and their psychological health (Sheffield, 95)

Question 90

What is self-actualisation (Rogers) and how is it achieved?

Answer 90

3 stages:
Self-concept = who you think you are, may be pessimistic and different to real self
Real self = person you actually are not what you think or wish to be
Ideal self = who you wish to be, who you are aiming to be

Rogers said in order to achieve self-actualisation a person must first be congruent.
This means that their ideal self and real self are the same/very similar. This then allows a person to have high feelings of self worth.
To achieve congruence, a person must have positive self regard (be loved & accepted for who they are without proviso).
If the gap between a person’s self concept (real self) and ideal self is too big, the person experiences incongruence and self actualisation isn’t possible (due to low self esteem/negative feelings about one’s self).

Question 91

What is incongruent and congruent in relation to Rogers self-actualisation?

Answer 91

Incongruent = self image is different to ideal self. Only little overlap. Self-actualisation will be different
Congruent = self image is similar to ideal self. More overlap. Person can self-actualise

Question 92

What is conditions of worth and counselling psychology (Rogers)?

Answer 92

Rogers believed that conditional love (when you are not accepted for who you are and when you are doing what others want you to do/be) leads to conditions of worth.
‘’I will only love you if….’’ can lead to a sense of worthlessness and low self esteem (and therefore a person is unable to reach self actualisation).
Unconditional positive regard (being accepted for who you are) is needed for positive mental health, and the ability to self- actualise.

In Roger’s client centred therapy and effective therapist should provide the client with three things: Genuineness, Empathy, Unconditional positive regard
Aim: to increase feelings of self-worth and reduce incongruence between self-concept and ideal self.
Rogers work transformed psychotherapy. No directive counselling techniques are practised, not only in clinical settings but throughout education, health and social care sectors.

Question 93

What are strengths of the humanistic approach?

Answer 93

-The humanistic approach is anti-reductionist (holistic). Humanistic psychologists reject any attempt to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components. They advocate holism – the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person (their relationships, past, present and future etc.). This approach may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-world context.
-The humanistic approach is a positive one. Humanistic psychologists have been praised for promoting a positive image of the human condition – seeing people as in control of their lives and having freedom to change. Freud saw human beings as slaves to their past and claimed all of us existed somewhere between ‘common unhappiness and absolute despair’. Therefore humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative.

Question 94

What are weaknesses of the humanistic approach?

Answer 94

-However, humanistic psychology, unlike behaviourism, has relatively few concepts that can be reduced to single variables and measured. This means that humanistic psychology in general is short on empirical evidence to support its claims.
-The humanistic approach may have a Western culture bias. Many humanistic ideas, such as self-actualisation, would be more associated with individualistic cultures in the West, such as the United States. Collectivist cultures such as India, which emphasise the needs of the group, may not identify so easily with the ideals and values of humanistic psychology. Therefore it is possible that the approach does not apply universally and is a product of the cultural context within which it was developed.