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A Level Psychology > Paper 1 - Memory > Flashcards

Paper 1 - Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What does duration mean?

A

How long info is stored for

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2
Q

What does capacity mean?

A

Amount of info that can be stored

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3
Q

What does encoding mean?

A

How information is changed to be stored (how it’s stored)

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4
Q

What does linear mean?

A

Info flows along a line

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5
Q

What is a passive processor?

A

Stores do not work together to process information (e.g. multi-store model)

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6
Q

What does unitary mean?

A

Single store that processes all info

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7
Q

What is an active process?

A

Stores work together to process info (working memory model)

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8
Q

What is dual-tasking?

A

Doing multiple things at one time (multi-tasking)

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9
Q

Draw and label the diagram of the multi-store model of memory

A

On bamboo paper

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10
Q

Draw and label the diagram of the working memory model

A

On bamboo paper

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11
Q

Explain the A03 for Sperling (sensory)

A

Participants (ppts) were shown a visual array of 12 letters flashing on the screen for 50 milliseconds . They then reviewed them. On average ppts recalled 4/12 as they faded to quickly

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12
Q

Explain the A03 for Peterson & Peterson (STM)

A

Ppts were given consonant syllables and 3 digits to learn. Then had to recall them at either 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds but in between learning & recall had to count backwards from their 3 digit number. 3 secs (90% recall), 18 secs (2% recall)

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13
Q

Explain the A03 for Baddely (LTM)

A

Ppts given 2 lists to learn, 1 was semantically similar words, 2 was acoustically similar. Ppts had to recall information immediately and 20 minutes later.
Immediate = errors on acoustic (stm codes acoustically)
20 mins later = errors on semantic list (LTM codes semantically)

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14
Q

Strengths of the multi-store model

A

Primacy and recency proves to separate (primacy - words heard first were in LTM, recency - words heard last were in STM)
Different coding is used by STM (acoustic) and LTM (semantic) - suggests two separate stores
HM (case study) suffered from epilepsy, surgeon removed hippocampus. When woke up personality and IQ was intact but appears he couldn’t make new LTMs (suggests the two separate stores and the STM is a gateway to the LTM, linear)

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15
Q

Weaknesses of the multi-store model

A

KF (case study) motorbike accident, STM was severely damaged but could make new LTMs. Struggled verbally but not visually (suggests model is not lie and and suggests STM is not unitary)
Flashbulb memories are strong vivid memories that goes straight into LTM without elaborate rehearsal (against idea that memory is linear)

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16
Q

What was the research evidence of the working memory model by Baddeley and Hitch

A

Aim - investigate dual tasking in STM
Procedure - Ppts given 2 tasks to do at same time
Results - only dual task if using different sub-stores
Fill out table on bamboo paper

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17
Q

Strengths of the working memory model

A

KF (motorbike accident) STM damaged, struggled verbally but not visually and could make new LTM
Suggests STM isn’t unitary and damage was restricted to the articulating loop

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18
Q

Weaknesses about the working memory model

A

Little known about central executive yet is the controller
EVR had tumour removed, when woke reasoning was fine but couldn’t make decisions. Suggests central executive is more complex (possibly 2 sub-stores)
Suggest need visuals for spatial awareness but blind people have intact spatial awareness with no vision
Suggests the visuo-spatial sketchpad is more complex (possibly 2 sub-stores)

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19
Q

What is a real life application of the working memory model

A

Dyslexia

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20
Q

What are the 3 times of long term memory?

A

Episodic, semantic, procedural

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21
Q

What is episodic long term memory?

A

Events or episodes that we have experienced (meaningful) e.g. first day of school, first kiss
Declarative, able to put into words ‘know that’

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22
Q

What is semantic long term memory?

A

Facts, general knowledge shared by all. E.g. the grass is green, first day of school
Some examples (school) are both episodic and semantic as closely linked
Declarative, able to put into works ‘know that’

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23
Q

What is procedural long term memory?

A

Motor or action/skill based memory
E.g. riding a bike
Non-declarative, not able to put into words ‘know how’

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24
Q

What is the location of the different scanning techniques in the 3 types of LTM?

A

Episodic - hippocampus & temporal lobe
Semantic - temporal lobe
Procedural - frontal lobe & motor cortex

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25
Q

Strengths of the types of long term memory

A

Corkin -> HM ‘mirror drawing’ task
Corkin worked everyday with HM on mirror drawing, drawing a star in between a star through a mirror.
After a month HM could do this perfectly BUT had no recollection he had been learning it for months nor did he know who Corkin was (due to not being about to make new long term memories).
You can make procedural memories WITHOUT episodic & semantic memories. Procedural is separate!

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26
Q

Weaknesses of the types of long term memory?

A

It has been suggested that episodic memories are the gateway to semantic memories; we don’t know if semantic memories form on their own. We don’t know how separate the 2 types of LTM are.
Using brain damage patients is a weakness as we do not know what they were like before the damage and we don’t know what the structural damage is until they are dead.(didn’t know what they were like before, just assume they had perfect memory etc)
4th type of memory ‘priming’ (there is a 4th type of memory, this theory does not account for this. ‘An automatic enhanced recognition system to specific stimuli’.

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27
Q

What is interference is relation to forgetting?

A

2 pieces of information (memories) get confused in your brain
Happens in between learning and recall
Happens when information is similar

28
Q

What is retroactive interference and an example?

A

New information stops/replaces old information
E.g. forgetting your old best friends name because you got a new one

29
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

Old information stops/replaces new information being recalled
E.g. calling your new boy/girl friend your ex’s name

30
Q

What are examples that experience and don’t experience inference

A

Experience Inference - French lesson after a Spanish lesson (similar)
Don’t Experience Inference - Chemistry lesson after a French lesson (not similar)

31
Q

Real world application of inference

A

It used to be that adverts of a similar nature would be played one after another. This knowledge led to an advertising schedule being developed so people didn’t get confused!
For revision - don’t revise similar content together (straight after each other).

32
Q

What are strengths of interference?

A

Underwood : When we learn word lists, we learn the first best!
If ppts had to learn 10+ word lists, recall was 20% 24 hrs later.
If ppts only had to learn 1 word list, recall was 70% 24 hrs later
McGeoch and McDonald : Ppts given a word list (list A), THEN, given list B, this was either:
Synonyms of list A (12% recall of list A)
Nonsense syllables (26% recall of list A)
Numbers (36% recall list A)

33
Q

What are weaknesses of interference?

A

The effects of interference can be seen, we know it happens but don’t know why?
Therefore this is a weak explanation as we cannot develop a solution as we don’t know how & why it occurs, it just does!
Low ecological validity : most studies take place in labs using word lists (this lacks mundane realism)
Word lists are not representative of everyday life forgetting. It explains simple forgetting but not all types of forgetting therefore it is a limited explanation.

34
Q

What is retrieval failure?

A

The absence of cues (context & state) that leads to forgetting. Also known as info being at ‘the tip of your tongue’

35
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A

Recall is best if it takes place in the same environment (context) as learning.

36
Q

What are cues?

A

Things that spark a memory and are very important, unlock memory that you cannot access. Cues do not have to be the exact same, just similar.

37
Q

What are the 2 types of cues and what is the difference?

A

Context - Recall is best if in the same environment as learning
State - Recall is best if in same state (mood) of learning

38
Q

What are the strengths of retrieval failure?

A
  • Abenethey : Ppts put in 4 conditions & tested each week. (G1 -Learning room with teacher, G2 - learning room with dif teacher, G3 - dif room with teacher, G4 - dif room with dif teacher) G1 best due to cues
  • Golden & Baddeley : Tested context cues, divers learned 40 unrelated words in 1 of 4 conditions (Learn & recall on land, learn land & recall water, learn & recall in water, learn water & recall land) best recall = same environment (context cues)
  • Goodwin : Men given list of words, learn and then recall 24 hrs later in one of conditions (learn & recall drunk, learn drunk & recall sober, learn & recall sober, learn sober & recall drunk) best recall = same state
  • Improve recall by using category heading/titled & mnemonics
39
Q

What are weaknesses of retrieval failure?

A
  • Most studies lack mundane realism (word lists tested within 24 hrs. Not explain everyday forgetting of all types, caution taken applying results of study to explanation)
  • Danger if circularity (hard to prove forgetting happens, assume info has been learned (encoded & shared) may not gone in memory (pay attention) at all, so aren’t testing forgetting if this the case)
  • It has been found that context in real life has to be very different to affect recall. Therefore weak explanation
40
Q

What is the real world application of retrieval failure?

A

In an exam (conducted in an exam hall) visualising yourself back in the place toy learned the info. Links to ‘mental reinstatement’ in the cognitive approach.

41
Q

What is misleading information?

A

Incorrect information given after seeing an event, due to remembering it incorrectly or dramatising after replaying the event

42
Q

What is an eyewitness testimony (EWT) and what is a problem with it?

A

A witness account of an event/incident that they may need to recall in court
Problem = innocence project overturned 72% of cases using DNA in cases which EWT was used originally

43
Q

What was Loftus & Palmer 1 (1974)?

A

45 students watch 7 different traffic accident clips filled in a questionnaire. All questions were the same except the ‘critical question’, How fast were the cars going? (Ppts we’re giving one of the 5 worlds below in their question)
Smashed (average said 40.8 mph)
Collided
Bumped
Hit
Contacted (31.8 mph)
Difference of 9 mph just for 1 word change!
Results = leading questions affect immediate recall

44
Q

What was Loftus & Palmer 2 (1974)?

A

Same as 1, with new ppts then 1 week later ‘smashes & hit’ were called back & asked ‘did you see the broken glass?’
Smashes (16/50 said yes)
Hit (7/50 said yes)
Say yes = leading question, affect post event, the info had been in memory for a week

45
Q

Discuss the post event info (Gabbert)

A

Discussing a memory after an event has happened, changes it
Group 1 = watched a video about an event)
Group 2 = watched different video about the same event
Some ppts did immediately recall, others were paired, 1 from each group who then discussed and then recalled, this causes 71% of inaccurate info

46
Q

What are Strengths about misleading information?

A
  • Loftus (bugs bunny cut out, college students asked to evaluate advertising material about Disneyland. Misleading information about Bugs Bunny or Ariel (neither could have been seen at Disney as bugs is not Disney and Ariel didn’t exist then) included. Ppts assigned to the Bugs, Ariel or control condition. All had visited Disney, those in the character conditions were more likely to report shaking hands with these characters. Demonstrates misleading information can create an inaccurate memory)
  • Highly controlled, can see the leading question changed causes the speed difference (leading questions affect recall)
47
Q

What are Weaknesses about misleading information?

A
  • Yuille & Curshall (real life event, interviews 13 people who witnesses arm robbery), interviewed 4 months later + 2 misleading questions, recall was same as before so post-event information may not affect memory in real life EWT
  • low ecological validity in studies
  • demand characteristics and social approval in studies
48
Q

Real world application of misleading information

A

Led to the development of the cognitive interview
(Stage 1, report everything)

49
Q

A01 about Johnson & Scott (1976) anxiety

A

Pen/Knife, field experiment
Ppts attended a study and asked to wait in waiting room. In room opposite, overheard an argument. Man walks out with :
1. Pen + greasy hands (49% accuracy) low anxiety
2. Knife + covered in blood (33% accuracy) high anxiety
Ppts asked to identify perpetrator from 50 photos
Results = anxiety hinders recall

50
Q

A01 about Yuille & Catshall (1986) anxiety

A

Bank robbery, real life
13 witnesses of bank robbery (some threatened) gave statements of events, 4 months later were interviewed with 2 leading questions
Results = statements almost matched, anxiety helps recall

51
Q

A01 about Parker et al. (2006)

A

Hurricane, real life
People interviewed after hurricane. Parker looking for relationship between memory of events & damage to their home (low, moderate or high)
If people experienced moderate level of damage (had highest recall)
Results = anxiety helps recall but optimal recall is moderate levels

52
Q

Valentine & Mesout (2009) anxiety

A

Ppts wore heart rate monitors while going around London Dungeons Labyrinth. Ppts were split into 2 conditions
1. High Anxiety
2. Low Anxiety
Ppts had to recall man they encountered
1. High anxiety (17% accuracy of identification)
2. Low anxiety (75% accuracy of identification)
Results = anxiety hinders recall

53
Q

A03 Weapon focus Johnson & Scott

A

If weapon present during incident, more likely to focus on that and not details of perpetrator (as poses a threat to us)

54
Q

A03 Tunnel theory Johnson & Scott

A

Only focus on really specific features of incident (weapon or hair of perpetrator) meaning we miss out on key features

55
Q

A03 Inverted U Theory

A

Explains Parker et al.
Optimum level of anxiety (moderate) leads to best recall

56
Q

A03 Fight vs Flight Yuille & Cutshall

A

Stressful situation triggers fight or flight response. Adrenaline (+ cortisol) realises resulting in increased heart rate, blood to muscles & brain, sweating to cool down and pupils dilate to focus
Body prepares and very focused = physiological alertness & readiness

57
Q

A03 Not anxiety, it’s surprise pickel

A

Surprise is what affects recall. Ppts sat in hairdressers and man walks in with :
1. Wallet (low threat, low surprise)
2. Scissors (high threat, low surprise)
3. Raw chicken (low threat, high surprise)
4. Handgun (high threat, high surprise)
3 & 4 = lowest recall of perpetrator

58
Q

A03 lab experiments & demand characteristics

A

A lot of studies people know they are in a study and may look for cues on how to behave (demand characteristics)
Ppts may help or hinder the results (either way this reduces validity of data obtained when explaining whether anxiety affects recall)

59
Q

What is a cognitive interview?

A

An interview that takes place at a police station (calm environment) links to ‘inverted-U theory’. Interviews are recorded and the interviewee does most of the talking.

60
Q

What is the difference between cognitive and standard interviews?

A

Cognitive interview is an interview that takes place at a police station (calm environment) links to ‘inverted-U theory’. Interviews are recorded and the interviewee does most of the talking. Whereas a standard interview resolves around the interviewer (police), specific questions are asked and forced responses are requested. Witnesses may be interviewed several times and can be interviewed anywhere.

61
Q

What are the 4 stages of the cognitive interview & describe each stage?

A

1.Report Everything - “No matter how small or irrelevant the detail, recall as much as you can remember about the incident.” Links to Loftus & Palmer : leading questions eff et memory recall (alters memory). Interviewer is NOT to interrupt, this stops the witness losing their “train of thought/their thread” Smaller details act as cues to trigger info (unlocks doors).
2. Mental Reinstatement - Visualise the incident “in your mind put yourself back at the scene of the crime and describe it” = recreates state/environment cues (unlock more info). Links to retrieval failure stage & context cues tend to lead to more detail (Godden & Baddeley)
3. Change Order - “Recall from the end of the incident and work your way to the start”. This allows access to the memory using different paths. This stops disrupting the original memory.
4. Change Perspective - “What would the lady that was standing on the opposite side of the road seen?” Asks witness to think about what someone else might have seen to unlock cues (gives a holistic account and allows info to be verified)

62
Q

What is the enhances cognitive interview (CI)?

A

Factors added to make the stages better, when the interviewer should use eye contact and stop using it. How to minimise distractions, importance of using open ended questions and interviewing at a police station

63
Q

What are the A03 links in regards to the cognitive interview?

A

Don’t use leading questions in report everything (Loftus & Palmer Exp 1)
Mental reinstatement (links to retrieval failure and state/context cue)
Why it takes place at police station and recorded (inverted U theory)

64
Q

What are the strengths of the cognitive interview?

A

-Kohnken : 34% increase in correct information using the CI
-Useful for older witnesses as ‘report everything no matter how small or irrelevant’ you may feel it is. Gives older people more confidence therefore more likely to come forward as a witness.

65
Q

What are the weaknesses of the cognitive interview?

A

-HOWEVER Kohnken : found an 81% increase in incorrect info from CI. (Police need to take caution with all info obtained)
-Time Problems : The CI requires a lot more time to be completed correctly than the SI.
-Police need to be trained (time & money implications) to deliver to CI.
-Hard to establish the effectiveness as police forces use different combinations of the 4 stages. (1 & 2 most useful/important).

A Level Psychology (9 decks)

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