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A Level Psychology > Paper 3 - Gender > Flashcards

Paper 3 - Gender Flashcards

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1
Q

Define sex

A

Sex : A biological status, determined by genes, hormones and chromosomes (CANNOT CHANGE)

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2
Q

Define gender

A

Gender : A psychological status : the expected attitudes, behaviours and roles of males/females (CAN CHANGE)

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3
Q

Define gender dysphoria

A

Gender Dysphoria : A persons sexual does not match their gender this leads to dysphoria

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4
Q

Define sex roles and examples of the stereotypes

A

Sex Role : Expected roles, attitudes of each sex in a given culture. These allow us to make short cuts in situations.
Sex Role Stereotypes : Girls (caring, nurturing, long hair, sensitive, cooking)
Boys (beer, sporty, aggressive, immature)

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5
Q

Sex, gender & BSRI : Ingalhaliker

A

Ingalhaliker : Mapped female and male brains with MRI. Female have greater connections across hemispheres. Males have greater connections within hemispheres.

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6
Q

Sex, gender & BSRI : Rubin

A

Rubin : Looked at when stereotyping occurred. New parents asked to describe their baby within 24 hrs of being born (boys = strong and alert), (girls = soft and delicate). Stereotyping occurs very early on, more so with gender reveals in todays society.

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7
Q

Sex, gender & BSRI : Batista Boys

A

“Penis at 14” 4 buys from the Dominican Republic were born with ambiguous genitalia. (Due to chemicals from a nearby factor). Genitals looked female, so they were raised as female. However during puberty they ‘became male’. Their sex was XY (later found out). They all socialised absolutely fine, marrried and had children.

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8
Q

BSRI : Bem’s sex role inventory, define androgyny

A

Androgyny : A balance of masculine and feminine traits, people will adapt to a given situation.

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9
Q

Explain the BSRI method

A

BSRI : Ppts rated themself 1-7 (always trust to always never true) on 6p traits (20 female, 20 male & 20 neutral). This gave one of 4 categories: male (high male score, low female), female (low male score, high female), androgynous (high male and high female score), unclassified (low male and female score).
Conclusion = Bem stated those that were androgynous were the most psychologically healthy and had great mental well-being.

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10
Q

A03 : Sex, gender & BSRI (pilot study)

A

Strength
Pilot Study : 100 people judged 200 traits to narrow down to 20 female, 20 male and 20 neutral (all agreed) = VALID. 1 month later they were asked again = same traits = high test retest.

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11
Q

A03 : Sex, gender & BSRI (lacks temporal validity)

A

Weakness
Lacks temporal validity : Created in the 70s, expected roles, behaviours & attitudes have changed since (females can be the breadwinner).

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12
Q

A03 : Sex, gender & BSRI (cultural bias)

A

Weakness
Cultural Bias : Developed in the USA, a western society (individualistic). It is not applicable to Eastern/collectivistic cultures (male traits may be expected & females there)

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13
Q

A03 : Sex, gender & BSRI (self report)

A

Weakness
Reductionist : Reduces the complexities of gender to 60 traits, we should consider jobs, attitudes, behaviours to get a better understanding.

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14
Q

A03 : Sex, gender & BSRI (reductionist)

A

Weakness
Reductionist : Reduces the complexities of gender to 60 traits, we should consider jobs, attitudes, behaviours to get a better understanding.

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15
Q

A03 : Sex, gender & BSRI (Adam & Sherer)

A

Weakness
Adam & Sherer : Stated masculines more desirable and useful in a western society. Therefore psychologically healthy & valued.

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16
Q

Biological Explanation: Chromosomes

A

Chromosomes : 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs, 23rd pair determines sex (xx female, xy male). They are biochemical units of heredity that govern development. The ‘Y’ chromosome has an ‘SRY’ gene causing the androgen (testosterone) to develop tests in the womb.

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17
Q

Biological Explanation: Hormones (what are testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin)

A

Hormones : Shape our behaviour & physical characteristics (prenatally hormones work on brain development & reproductive development -> at puberty a secondary burst of hormones occur (sexual characteristics)
Testosterone = Controls male sex organ development & linked to aggression in both genders. A03: Van de Poll : injected female rats with testosterone -> led to increase aggression.
Oestrogen = Controls female sex organs & menstruation. PMT (pre-menstrual tension) leads to increased emotion, irritability & aggression.
Oxytocin = Controls lactation and bending. Women stimulate higher levels than males (explains females need for intimacy).

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18
Q

Biological explanation : C.A.H

A

C.A.H: Congenital adrenal hyperplasma, a rare prenatal condition, increased levels of testosterone in females lead to ambiguous genitalia in newborn girls (referred to as Tomboys).

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19
Q

Biological Explanation: A03 : + Bruce/Brenda

A

Bruce/Brenda : Dr Money ‘theory of neutrality’ believed nurture overrides nature! But this case proved: nature overrides nurture for our gender
ADD OWN NOTES TO THIS (explain what happened, e.g. penis burnt off with laser during circumcising Bruce, new theories say can transfer to female and bring up as a girl, didn’t work out)

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20
Q

Biological Explanation: A03 : + Van Goozen

A

Van Goozen : Male -> female transsexuals have lower levels of aggression than female -> male (demonstrates testosterone is linked to aggression and more ‘male’ behaviour)

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21
Q

Biological Explanation: A03 : - Tricker

A

Tricker : Gave male ppts 10 weekly injections of testosterone or a placebo. No significant differences were found in behaviour (suggests that testosterone doesn’t post-natally lead to aggressive behaviour)

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22
Q

Biological Explanation: A03 : - Deterministic

A

Deterministic : Ignores SLT, the biological approach is 100% nature and ignores SLT explanations. There is research to suggest our sex related behaviour is caused by observing and imitating role models in our environment. Therefore this explanation cannot explain cultural differences in gender related behaviour. Doesn’t explain changes in todays society.

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23
Q

Biological Explanation: A03 : - Reductionist

A

Reductionist : This approach reduces the complexities of our gender down to genes, hormones & chromosomes. It ignores any thought processes as well as the influence our environment can have on shaping our behaviour.

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24
Q

Atypical Sex Chromosomes : Explain Klinefelters

A

XXY
Affects 1 in 750 males. Extra ‘X’ chromosome. Not physically noticeable, identified usually during a routine medical check.

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25
Q

Atypical Sex Chromosomes : Klinefelters physical & psychological characteristics

A

Physical Characteristics:
Reduced body hair
Develops small breasts at puberty
Long & gangly limbs

Psychological Characteristics:
Poor language skills
Poor memory
Passive & shy
Poor reading

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26
Q

Atypical Sex Chromosomes : Explain Turner

A

XO
Affects 1 in 5000 females. Missing one 2nd X chromosome. Only 45 chromosomes. Noticeable from birth.

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27
Q

Atypical Sex Chromosomes : Turner physical/psychological characteristics

A

Physical Characteristics:
Broad shield chest
Don’t develop ovaries - no menstrual cycle
Webbed neck
Physically immature

Psychological Characteristics:
Higher reading ability
Low spatial, visual & maths skills
Socially immature & have few friends

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28
Q

A03 : Atypical Sex Chromosomes : strength (comparing typical & atypical)

A

+ Comparing typical & atypical sex chromosome patterns develop our understanding of physical and psychological differences that biology has influenced on people (nature). This develops our understanding of the impact nature has on sex & gender in the differences in people.

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29
Q

A03 : Atypical Sex Chromosomes : strength (research led to earlier identification)

A

+ This research has led to earlier identification which has led to treatment/methods to thrive. Those that were identified as having atypical sex chromosome patterns had significant benefits to those identified in adulthood. Improves quality of life as these conditions can affect people psychologically (I.e. school support/SEN)

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30
Q

A03 : Atypical Sex Chromosomes : weakness (social immaturity)

A
  • Social immaturity can be an environmental influence rather than biological. I.e. girls with Turners may become socially isolated during puberty. Can or assume the physical and psychological differences are just nature.
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31
Q

A03 : Atypical Sex Chromosomes : weakness (research based on 33%)

A
  • All research on Klinefelters is based on 33% of males with Klinefelters - therefore is not representative of the conditions many makes experience, there may be less differences.
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32
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory : interactionist (explain nature and nurture)

A

Interactionist
Nature = All born with ability to create schemas.
Nurture = Schemas develop due to experience.

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33
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory : Stage Theory

A

Stage Theory - Gender understanding runs parallel to intellectual development (gets better with age). A gradual process.

34
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory : Egocentric

A

Egocentric - An inability to see the world from another point of view (gender identity & stability)

35
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory : conservation

A

Conservation - Something can stay the same (quantity) even though it’s appearance has changed (2 glasses, volume task).

36
Q

What are the 3 stages of Kohlberg’s Theory

A

Gender identity
Gender stability
Gender consistency

37
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory : stage 1

A

Gender identity
2 - 3 years
Can label themself as boy/girl by 3 years.
Relies on physical appearance.
Doesn’t understand gender is permanent.

Child is egocentric & doesn’t understand conservation

38
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory : Stage 2

A

Gender Stability
3 - 4 years
Child knows their own gender stays the same.
Cannot apply this knowledge to other people or other situations.

Child is egocentric & doesn’t understand conservation

39
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory : Stage 3

A

Gender Consistency
Around 6 years
Complete understanding of gender for self & others across time, situations & despite superficial change.
They NOW look for role models to confirm their knowledge.

Not egocentric & understand conservation

40
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory : A03 : + Ken Doll Exp

A

+ Ken Doll Exp : A ’Ken Doll’ is shown to a 2,4,6 year old in phase A Ken is wearing shorts/shirt/short hair (boy boy boy). Phase B he wears skirt/shirt/short hair (girl girl boy). Phase C he wears skirt/shirt/long hair (girl girl boy). This backs up 2 - 4 year olds are egocentric & Kohlberg’s stage theory.

41
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory : A03 : + Slaby & Freg

A

+ Slaby & Frey : Showed pictures to children of females and males doing the same task. Children in the gender consistency stage took longer looking at the pictures. Shows identification : backs up gender knowledge develops with age.

42
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory : A03 : - Research method comes from interviews with children

A
  • The research method to obtain knowledge for this theory comes from interviews with children (2-6 year olds). Questions were adapted but children’s language is limited, they may not have understood the question or been able to verbalise it also they are suggestive. Reduces validity of the theory explaining gender development.
43
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory : A03 : - SLT challenges theory

A
  • SLT challenges this theory as Kohlberg’s theory cannot explain why boys are so reluctant to play with girls toys (from 4). The theory doesn’t explain gender differences. SLT explain this through identification & operant conditioning (boys punished for playing with Barbies).
44
Q

Gender Schemas : define schemas, Interactionist, examples of girls/boys schemas

A

Schemas are mental constructs that develop via experiences and are used
by our cognitive system to organise our knowledge.

Interactionist:
Nature = born with the ability to create schemas
Nurture = these schemas develop with experience

Our understanding of gender runs parallel to intellectual development.
We are ACTIVE in structuring our own learning.
(Above backs up Kohlberg)

Girls = organised, pink, long hair, smell nice, nurse, glitter, dolls, makeup
Boys = cars, short hair, blue, disorganised, sport, dinosaurs
(Above generalised representations of what we know about each gender)

45
Q

Gender Schemas Explained : throughout the ages

A

Once a child has reached gender identity (2-3 years) they actively search their environment to develop their schema (goes against Kohlberg - he said at 6).
By 6 years old, children have fixed & stereotypical views/attitudes about each gender. Anything that does not fix with their schema they disregard (girl playing with dinosaurs)
By 8 years we have a good understanding of both genders (we have developed elaborate schemas). This leads to negative evaluations of your out group (teasing).
-> Ingroup : same sex = reinforce our knowledge & boosts self-esteem
-> Outgroup : opposite sex = don’t pay as much attention to them

46
Q

A03 : Gender Schemas : Martin & Halverson

A

+ Martin & Halverson : Children under 6 years old remembered more photographs of gender consistent behaviour than of gender inconsistent behaviour after 1 week. They would changed the behaviour of the inconsistent person to fit with their norm.

47
Q

A03 : Gender Schemas : Boston & Levy

A

+ Boston & Levy : Compared girls and boys ability ability to assemble sequences of pictures in the correct order (4 pictures), these were pictures of typically female and typically male activities. (E.g. steps of making a cake) The children were better at sequencing their own sex typical activities than the opposite = ingroup

48
Q

A03 : Gender Schemas : theory overlooks social factors

A
  • This theory overlooks social factors & cannot explain why gender schemas develop & take the form they do. It is weak in explaining gender development
49
Q

A03 : Gender Schemas : boys show more extreme gender type behaviour

A
  • Boys show more extreme gender type behaviour & greater resistance to opposite sex activities than girls. GST doesn’t explain this, SLT can through operant conditioning (EXPLAIN HOW)
50
Q

A03 : Gender Schemas : compare to Kohlberg

A
  • Compare to Kohlberg : Backs up that gender knowledge runs parallel to intellectual development. But GST states we look for role models and actively shape our schemas from 2-3 (once we know we are a boy/girl). Kohlberg said this happened once we achieve consistency.
51
Q

Psychodynamic Explanation : link to Interactionist & all happens in the _

A

Interactionist: Psychosexual stages are innate. Experience to how we overcome conflict. Shapes our adult personality.

All happens in the unconscious

52
Q

Psychodynamic Explanation : what is the key psychosexual stage

A

Key Psychosexual Stage: Phallic (where you obtain your gender). Before this, a child is essentially bisexual

53
Q

Psychodynamic Explanation : links to personality (3 types)

A

ID - Immediate gratification -> “I want it now”
Ego - Mediator (between ID & superego)
Superego - Morality principle (you obtain after successful completion of the phallic stage - off same sex parent)

54
Q

Psychodynamic Explanation : Oedipus complex

A

Boys : Oedipus Complex : Boys desire their mums, they see their dad as a competitor for their mums love. They notice not everyone has a penis. Boys develop castration anxiety (fear dad will chop their penis off). They decide to give up their love for their mother and actively identify with their father, in doing so they take in the male gender identity - the fathers superego (morals & values).

55
Q

Psychodynamic Explanation : Electra complex

A

Girls : Electra Complex : Girls desire their dads, he has a penis & girls want one they have penis envy. Girls blames their mums for a lack of penis and power. They give up their love, for their dad & passively (no fear/no choice) take on the female gender identity & take one mums superego (morals/values). They channel their energy into ‘penis baby project’ having a baby boy (some power).

56
Q

A03 : Psychodynamic Explanation : Little Hans

A

+ Little Hans: 5 year old that developed a fear of horses. Freud suggest Hans phobia was displacement - he had repressed his fear of his dad onto a horse he saw collapse in the street. This case study backs up the Oedipus conflict. However it is a case study so is open to interpretation and bias. Better explained by classical conditioning by behaviourist psychology.

57
Q

A03 : Psychodynamic Explanation : punitive dad

A
  • The theory suggests the more punitive dad is the stronger male identification. Blakemore found boys with more liberal fathers were more secure in their male identification. This suggests Freud’s theory lacks validity in explaining gender identity.
58
Q

A03 : Psychodynamic Explanation : alpha bias

A
  • Freud’s theory was created in a Patriarchal society (alpha bias). Karen Horney suggested in todays society men experience womb envy (women’s ability to create life). Freud theory is androcentric (Freud believed women needed men).
59
Q

A03 : Psychodynamic Explanation : once conflict resolved …

A
  • Freud stated that once conflict is resolved at 5 years old no more gender development takes place. Kohlberg disagreed with this, stating gender development continues past 7 years old. Freud underestimates the complexities of gender.
60
Q

SLT : nurture, observation, imitation, reinforcement

A

Nurture : Learn all gender related behaviour from the environment and experience.
Observation : Simply watching gender related behaviour.
Imitation : Copying gender related behaviour (no special relationship)
Reinforcement : Operant conditioning (learn through consequence)

61
Q

SLT : Direct & Indirect

A

Direct : Positive reinforcement (YOU get praised for gender behaviour)
Punishment (YOU get punished for gender behaviour)

Indirect (vicarious) : Positive reinforcement (you watch SOMEONE ELSE be rewarded, you repeat as you want the reward)
Punishment (You watch SOMEONE ELSE be punished, you don’t repeat as you don’t want to be punished)

62
Q

SLT : identification, modelling, mediational processes

A

Identification : A special relationship between yourself and the role model, you see yourself as similar.

Modelling : You imitate (copy) gender related behaviour of someone you look up to. They have status/are desirable.

Mediational Processes : Attention (watch gender related behaviour)
Retention (you remember and analyse the skill)
Motivation (praise/punishment)
Reproduction (you do the action)

63
Q

A03 : SLT : Bandura 1

A

+ Bandura 1 : Children watch a same sex adult model hit a bobo doll. Children then allowed to play in the playroom. Children imitated the adults. (Demonstrates no imitate gender related behaviour from same sex role models - observation & imitation).

64
Q

A03 : SLT : Bandura 2

A

+ Bandura 2 : Same as above BUT with a consequence. (Condition 1 = adult praised - children copied) (Condition 2 = adult punished - children did not copy) (Condition 3 = no consequence - control). Demonstrates we imitate if positively reinforced (backs up the key concept operant conditioning).

65
Q

A03 : SLT : Cultural differences

A

+ Cultural differences : This theory explains same gender differences around the world, through different media & learning experiences. Biological approach cannot explain this.

66
Q

A03 : SLT : Bruce/Brenda

A
  • Bruce/Brenda : This theory ignores any biological influence on gender related behaviour such as testosterone leads to aggression. HOWEVER Bruce/Brenda case demonstrates nature overrides nurture.
67
Q

Culture : Mead

A

Mead : Observed gender roles in 3 tribes (overt & non ppt)
Apresh: Men and women are gentle and cooperative
Mundugmar: Men and women violent & aggressive
Tchambuli: Women dominant, providers (they fished) and organised tribe life
These suggest gender behaviour is nurture (different)

68
Q

Culture : Buss

A

Buss : Looked at mate preference over 37 countries. Males look for youth and attractiveness. Females look for wealth and resources. Gender behaviour is nature

69
Q

Culture : Monroe

A

Munroe : Most countries follow the ‘typical’ divisions of labour. Male = breadwinner, Female = carer, nurturer. Gender behaviour is nature. Links to attachment (A03) females had children, had to breastfeed and bond.

70
Q

A03 : Culture : Ethnocentric

A
  • Ethnocentric : Mead imposed her western views of gender on these cultures, she didn’t understand (non ppt observation). Therefore reduces validity of determining if gender behaviour is universal. A way around this is use an indigenous psychologist.
71
Q

A03 : Culture : Impose Ethic

A
  • Impose Ethic : She created a tool suitable to measure gender in one culture (western) and expected it to work in other cultures. Should have worked with an indigenous psychologist.
72
Q

A03 : Culture : Cannot disentangle nature from nurture

A

Cannot disentangle nature from nurture. Cross cultural research is useful at looking into this, but we don’t know where nature stops and nurture begins (due to media). An interactionist view would be better.

73
Q

Media : links to social learning theory

A

Link to social learning theory
We need same sex role models in the media to shape our behaviour. Needed for imitation, identification & reinforcement to ensure appropriate gender related behaviour-> acceptance.

74
Q

Media : Bandura

A

Bandura : The media provides clear stereotypes to follow. Men are independent, ambitious & advice givers. Women are dependent, unambitious & advice sneakers.

75
Q

Media : Furham

A

Furham : In the media are autonomous roles = professionals, females are in housewife/ family roles.

76
Q

Media : McGhee

A

McGhee : Found a correlation (shows relationship not cause and effect) between high media exposure & high sex role stereotypical behaviour.

77
Q

Media : Wober

A

Wober : The media sex roles influenced what children wanted to do when they grew up. Men = occupational roles, Women = service/caring roles (nurse, nursery nurse)

78
Q

A03 : Media : Bandura 1

A

+ Bandura experiment 1 : Children watch same sex role models hit the bobo doll and therefore copy and imitate this. This suggests that we observe and imitate same sex role models which can be presented to us in the media.

79
Q

A03 : Media : Cultural Bias

A
  • Media focuses on western families = cultural bias, therefore can only be used to explain western societies (not generalisable).
80
Q

A03 : Media : No media challenging male stereotypes

A
  • No media challenging male stereotypes -> this might explain males fixed view of gender roles (challenges female roles like the Disney princess but no program of boys staying at home and looking after babies for example).
81
Q

A03 : Media : No control group

A
  • No control group, there are very few people that have not had media exposure therefore nothing to compare to as a baseline. This limits validity of research when establishing norms.

A Level Psychology (9 decks)

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