paper 3 - 2022 Flashcards
define crime
a legal wrong that can be followed by criminal proceedings, which may result in punishment; an action or omission which constitutes an offence and is punishable by law.
define deviance
behavior which is disapproved of by most people in a society or group, which does not conform to shared norms and values.
define social order
general conformity to the shared norms and values, so that society is peaceful and predicable.
sociologists do not agree on how and why social order is achieved, and in whose interests it works.
define social control
the processes by which people are persuaded to obey the rules and conform . the agencies of social control are institutions that serve to ensure conformity.
define formal social control
- institutions that directly and explicitly control the behavior of the population, via passing and enforcing laws
- carried out by the government, armed forces and the criminal justice system including the police, the court and the prison service.
- people are aware they are happening
example and effects of formal mechanisms of social control
education =legal requirement to attend and behavior codes
workplace = official discipline procedures and codes of conduct
sanctions - warning from police, sentences, dismissal from work and exclusion from school
police, court and criminal justice system, government and the military = passing and enforcing laws that directly and explicitly control the behavior
military - rarely used in UK, however military tactics used at time of civil unrest
religion - within families and communities, sanctions = public exclusion
define informal social control
control our behaviour in more subtly way and are carried out by agencies such as the education system, the family, the peer groups, media and religion.
individuals are less aware but more important and effective.
sanctions = social exclusion (peer group), disappointed reactions from parents, being passed over for a promotion at work, celebrities being criticised in magazines
elements of a social construct
not fixed created by society different in different cultures - cultural relative laws define them temporally relative - change over time context dependent
why crime is socially constructed
relativity of …
time - drinking alcohol in 1920’s US
culture - women cant show their legs in Islamic society
circumstances - killing the a enemy solider at war
what do police recorded crime figures include
statistics produced from police, court and prison records
data collected in the crime survey for England and wales
a victim survey which asks people about their experiences of crime
collected by the home office and published by the ONS
strength of police recorded crime figures.
easy to access and have already been compiled
up to date and standardized - time between report and occurrence tends to be short
covers the whole population over a long period of time - help with identifying patterns and trends
no ethical issues
not an estimated sample - provided a whole count
weaknesses of police recorded crime figures
don’t include undetected or unreported crimes - dark figures of crime
don’t provide a complete picture about the individual crime
accuracy may vary between areas
influenced by changes in public perceptions
definitions, laws and police counting change - changes in police practice and government polices may influence them
pressure on police to meet certain crime reduction
the dark figure of crimes
term used for all unreported crime - hard to estimate how large the figure is
some crimes are more likely to have dark figures than others
Sociologists =
mumsnet et al
starmer
lindsay armstrong
mumsnet et al - dark figure of crimes
83% of those who are raped or sexually assaulted didn’t report to the police
1/2 were to embarrassed to report
2/3 hesitated because of how low conviction rates were
3/4 felt the media was unsympathetic to raped women
starmer - dark figure of crime
9/10 rapes or sexual assaults are never reported because victims don’t believe in the criminal justice system.
support - 2014 the ministry of justice relieved that conviction for SA fell
Lindsay Armstrong - dark figures of crime
went through a second ordeal by the defense lawyer in the court case leading to the conviction of her attacker but also her suicided / overdose
police discretion
an issue with police recorded crime figures is that they will be affected by the discretion and decisions made by the police
some police may be corrupt and have their own reasons for misrecording
however recent evidence suggests that practices which compromise the accuracy of the statistics are widespread
officers can also influence statistics by being affected by stereotypes.
manipulation techniques - coughing, cuffing and skewing
manipulation technique - coughing
offender may be encouraged to admit to a number of offences in return for being charged of a less serious crime.
this will improve clear up rates for the police
manipulation technique - cuffing
removing reports from the statistics at a later date, because officers decide either that they don’t believe the complaint or reassess the offence following further investigation.
improving figures
manipulation technique - skewing
involves forces putting further resources into those areas measured by performance indicators, to the detriment of other areas, thus skewing figures
James Patrick - the whistle blower
allegations of routine manipulation of statistics were made in 2013 by James Patrick. He provided evidence to parliamentary committee about his concerns. he was disciplined by the police and left his job as a result.
when a police officer analyzed data for the metropolitan police and found that serious sexual offences were routinely no-crimed and burglary was downgraded to a lower crime.
he has support from other senior officers - public administration committee attitudes and behavior which led to misrecording of crime has become ingrained, including within senior leadership
define victim survey
alternative way of measuring crime which involves surveying people about which crimes they have been victims of in a given period, including crimes they have not reported
e.g. the Islington crime survey, or Dobash and Dobash
strength of CSEW victim surveys
positivists views the BCS methods as highly scientific, representative, reliable and objective
random sampling - nationally representative = highly generalizable
structured interviews offer reliability because its standardized and planed in advance
uncovers the dark figures of crime - more valid than police recorded figures
limitations of CSEW victim survey
- Marxists point out that the general public are usually unaware that they may have been a victim of crimes committed by the economically powerful.
- left realists argue that they don’t tell us a lot about the day to day life in high crime areas such as inner cities as there is low respondent rates. - higher homelessness and less private housing
- Pinkington notes that the BCS distort the meaning of the numbers; a small number of crimes are violent or sexual but they are the most traumatic
the Islington crime survey
jones, MacLean and young
- inner city of London and Merseyside - 2 surveys
focused was a specific geographical area and looked at the impacts of crimes on individuals life and vulnerable groups
statistic - the Islington crime survey
found 1/3 of households had been effected by serious crimes in the last 12 months
crime was rated as a major problem second to unemployment
1/4 of people avoided going out after dark
28% of people felt unsafe in their own house
more than half of women stated that they rarely or ever went out after dark
young - Islington crime survey
the survey shows that the fear of crime is real and rational
understandable that 46% of people admitted to be worried about mugging as 40% of population actually knew someone who had been mugged
young - moral panic
police figures - male are more likely to be a victim to a crime than females
according to young this is not because of women facing a moral panic
trained researchers - sympathetically conducted interviews - found a considerably higher levels of victimization - due to the non-reporting of sexual and domestic offences through official channels
Dobash and Dobash’s victim survey
studied domestic violence
in-depth interviews with women at a refuge
such qualitative research is not aiming to compete with police recorded figures but access a particular group of victims and understand how the crime impacted their lives
limitations of the victim surveys
- young = dark figures may also affect victim surveys - relies on victims accuracy, honesty and memory. may get timeline wrong and others may not tell the truth for a various reasons - didn’t know they were involved in a crime e.g. trespassing
- problem with respondent rates - low representativeness of the final sample - low generalizability
- they exclude victimless crimes e.g. drug procession - not reliable to ask for people to self -report their own crimes
strengthens of victim-surveys - general
+ help discover new and emerging crimes - especially new types of fraud and online crimes
+ they can also measure peoples attitudes to policing and the criminal justice system
+ useful at identifying social groups at risk of being victims of crimes and have been used to design crime prevention programs
define self - report studies- general
a method of measuring crime involving asking people which crimes they have committed.
quantitative self reports
list of offences that respondents tick off the ones they have committed
provide picture of the typical criminal
e.g. Campbell
Campbell - self report study
conducted on young females and some young males
found level of deviance and crime within the genders was more similar than the police recorded figures tended to suggest
also some self-report studies found that statistic tended to overemphasis working class males involvement in crime
features of a self - report study
qualitative or quantitative data collected
interview or questionnaire
longitude in nature
often carried out on young people
focus on gaining a comprehensive picture
measure = family backgrounds, peers, education, age, gender and ethnicity
Cambridge study - Farrington - self-report study
longitudinal study
followed the criminals careers of 411 south London boys
aged 8 to 32
Edinburgh study of youth transitions and crime - self report study
longitudinal self report study of the offending career of over 4000 young people
focused on gender differences
information was collected from multiple sources about all members of the cohort once a year
proved a continuous account of events in the lives of the cohorts and not just an account of selected time segments
3 issue affecting the usefulness of self-report studies
- validity
- attrition
- ethics
validity as an issue of using self-report studies
how far do self-reports produce a true picture of the number of offences committed
- concerns about the truthfulness and accuracy of data gained: conceal offences or make false claims however respondents honesty can be evaluated by comparing it to official records
e. g. Farrington and west = found 94% convicted boys admitted to their convictions and 2% lied about being convicted
e. g. Farrington et al = found evidence that young boys are more readily admitted to their convictions than older males and females - because of their concerns to present a façade of respectability - self reports can also be compared to more direct measures of offending
attrition as an issue of using self-report studies
refers to participants and drop out rates
important issue because participants are hard to find and interview tend to commit the most offences according to evidence from Farringdon et al
- surveys with high attrition rates is likely to miss out a number of frequent offenders and under-estimate the true number of offences committed
e.g. Cambridge study - identified the issue of co-operation = uncooperative men at age 32 tended to have uncooperative parent at age 8 and at age 18 become so themselves
however the Cambridge study participation rate 4 sweeps continued to be extremely high (94%)
ethics as an issue of using self report studies
informed consent, confidentiality and the right to withdraw
Edinburgh study - gained consent from parent through a letter, those who wished to withdraw returned a tear off slip - children were fully informed on the purpose and know they could refuse anytime. children also signed a consent form to access their police records
- problem of matching the offenders definitions of criminal behaviors with police categories
additionally they tend to focus on relativity small groups of people and particular types of crimes
- reducing representatively
Sutherland - social class pattern and trends in crime (offending)
‘criminal statistics show that crime, has a high incidence in the lower socio-economic class and a low incidence in the upper socio- economic class’
2002 = the social exclusion unit reported many prisoners had a history of social exclusion - more likely than the general population to grown up in care and poverty.
67% of prison population have been unemployed (4% of general population)
32% have been homeless
Williams - social class patterns and trend in crime (offending)
found other factors common with the prison population
1. having run away from home
2. experienced violence/ drug misuse within the family
3. being excluded from school
4. having no qualifications
literacy and numeracy levels significantly lower than those of the general population
- data from self-report studies show the difference between offending rates for working + middle class people is not as high as the figures above show
Cavadino and Dignam - social class pattern and trends in crime (offending)
the difference between the classes gets vastly magnified - reasons for this include the type of offences committed but also class biases in the criminal justice process
the British crime survey - social class and victimisation
showed that young households, lone parents and the unemployed are all more than twice as likely to be burgled than the average household and the unemployed are more than twice as likely to be the victims of violence compare to average person
young - social class and victimisation
‘myth of the equal victim’
suggesting that certain groups such as the poor are hit much harder when they become a victim of crime compared to other groups
(supported by Kinsey)
Kinsey - social class and victimisation
Merseyside crime survey
found that the poor suffer more than the wealthy from the effects of crime
e.g. a victim of burglary who is uninsured will be hit harder economically
gender and offending - female vs. male
data from the ministry pf justice system shows that females accounted for only 18.7% of arrests and 25% of convictions in 2013. - females tend to peak in their criminal career at age 13.
police recorded crime figures consistently show that male commit around 80% of all offences - boys tend to peak in criminal offences at 18
gender also may interact with social class - in 2010-11 female offenders were more likely than male offenders to be on benefits before and after their caution, conviction or prison sentence
gender and offending - number of murder offenders in the US
show men tend to commit more aggressive crimes
however it doesn’t specify ages so therefore lacks validity
also in 2021 the unknown gender is valid as other genders such as non-binary are included
gender and victimisation - CSEW
victimisation rates are currently very similar between men and women but the types of crimes that men and women are victims of do differ
women worry more about being a victim of crime compared with men however young men aged 18 to 24 are the most at risk of being victims of crime (especially violent ones )
gender and victimisation - ICS
found women experience more curfews on their activities
half of women in their sample never went out after dark because they feared being victims of sexual crimes
gender and victimisation - crown prosecution service
estimated that 9 out of 10 rapes go unreported because victims believe that the criminal justice system will not help them
gender and victimisation - statistics
- 2/3 of homicide victims are males (uk)
- females are more likely than males to victims of sexual and domestic violence: female victims of domestic violence are often repeat victims because women find it hard to leave abusive relationships due to a lack of economic independence, shortage of safe shelters, young children
age and offending
evidence from police recorded crime figure suggests that young people are more likely to offend than adults
young people aged 10 to 17 are responsible for minority of incidents of police recorded crimes- 23% of police recorded crime in 2009/10 (represents a disproportionate amount of crime)
age and offending - gender differences
males aged 10 to 17 were found to be responsible for 20% of all police recorded crime in 2009/10
and young women were responsible for only 4%
females are 83% more likely to receive a youth caution than males
ethnicity and offending - ministry of justice
black people are stopped and searched 7x more than white people in 2009/10
in 2013 black people made up 3.1% of the population, accounted for 14.2% of all stop and searches
the overall number of arrests decreased by 3% in the last 5 years to 2010 but arrests of black people rose by 5% and Asian people by 13%. - black people were arrested over 3x more than white people
ethnicity and offending - Bowling and Philips
the crown prosecution service drop cases that are put forward by the police involving black suspects, suggesting the police charge black people more frequently based on inadequate evidence.
public debates about the level of migration from eastern European countries which are now part of the EU - politicians are concerned about the high levels of criminality found by the media amongst these groups
ethnicity and offending - association of chief police officers
despite the newspapers linking new migrants to crime offending rates in these countries the rate of offending was in line with the general population.
last 15 years immigration has increased but overall crime rates have fallen
(polish, Romanian and Bulgarian communities)
ethnicity and victimisation - inter-racial and intra-racial crimes
overall the racial incidents and racially or religiously aggravated offences recorded by the police decreased over the last 5 years from2005
home office evidence = suggest that black people are 5x more likely to be murdered by their white counterpart in England and wales - police records indicate that in about 1/3 gun murders both victims and suspect are black
what is global organised crime
a term used to describe illegal activities pursued by organised criminal groups or gangs which cross national borders.
such as drugs, people or arm trafficking, money laundering and terrorism
global organised crime = scale of the problem
estimate suggests that the world shadow economy could be as high as 10% of global GDP
what factors prevent an international response to GOC
- diversity of group + range of activities involved
- difficulties relating to international cooperation
- boarder issues + lack of common definitions
- increased trend towards state deregulation
- the lack of global attention at the expense of the threat of terrorism
global organised crime - Gastrow
suggested popular perceptions/stereotypes of organised crime are outdated e.g. mafia boss
key problem is that boarders are irrelevant to global crime organisations making them hard to track and pursue
predicts an increasing wealth gap and skewed income distribution in the global economy
- because of a growing demand for cheaper contraband and the expansion of criminal economies
global organised crime - Castells
resemble business networks - that use globalisation to work with criminal groups in other countries e.g. minimise risk and maximise profit by co-operating
however the view of co-operation is challenged by the relevance of GOC - importance of local context in which criminal networks function
what is green crime
criminal activity that affects the environment in some way or another
e.g. dumping waste or trafficking endangered animals
green crime - Aas
green crime demonstrates the intersection of the local and the global
- local environmental crime product of a chain of geographically dispersed events and activities
however green criminologists focus on legal activity that is damaging to the environment, such as deforestation and Co2 emissions. relating to the abuse of power for profit
green crime - potter
Marxists = damage of green exceeds damage of street crime as consequences of state sanctioned activities often relate to the environment
- fuel price protests by lorry drivers: shows how competition for resources can led to public unrest
- says the poorest people suffer from environmental harm and the rich’s corporations responsible avoid any kind of criminal repercussions
green crime - Carrabine et al
primary green crime - crimes that directly inflict harm on the environment and people as an extension
4 categories = air pollution, water pollution, deforestation, species decline and animals rights
secondary green crime - actions committed as a response to the commissioning of primary crime
e.g. attempts to cover up by breaking environmental regulation or dealing aggressively with protestors
responses to green crime
green criminologists = talk about the human harm caused from these activities
e.g. millions of deaths due to environmental problems such as absence of clean water
functionalism = functions of crime and deviance
- warning device
- help society to process (Erikson = todays deviants are tomorrows innovators)
- provides employment
- safety valve
- social cohesion - support each other
- reaffirms boundaries
Durkheim - crime and deviance ( functionalist)
- crime and deviance is inevitable and a product of the lack of attachment to the value consensus
- the spread of change in the modern society courses crime and deviance and leave people in a state of anomie (loss of old traditions and new economic processes )
- also argues for social order, which is only possible because of homo-duplex nature (selfish yet have morals )
- social order is important to weak members of society
- crime needs to be limited to benefit society
Merton - crime and deviance (functionalism)
argued with Durkheim crime is the result of people’s different attachments to collective values
- is an overall consensus but not all individuals are capable of realising the goals of society
e.g. American dream = value of meritocracy and materialism are the main goals in society
- crime emerges as an over focus on the goal of wealth over the importance of the institutional means
react to this by - 1. conform 2. innovate 3. ritualism 4. retreat 5. rebellion
Merton - 5 responses to blocked opportunities
conformity = continue to conform and obey the law. continue to strive for material wealth using legitimate means
innovation = socialized into the consensus, aim for material wealth, turn to illegitimate means to gain it as they realises that other methods are unlikely to produce wealth quickly e.g. lance Armstrong = cheat and lie to gain medal.
ritualism = realise they will never achieve material success but compensate by gaining job satisfaction - follow rules for ritualist satisfaction.
retreatment = reject goal of material success and legitimate means, depend on welfare benefits and reject cultural goals - drop out of society becoming suicides
rebellion = reject cultural goals and legitimate means of achieving them but do so for political or ideological reasons. - alternative goals that are seen as to extreme by society.
Cohen - crime and deviance (functionalism)
agrees with anomie but suggests that those at the bottom of society system develop a subculture of criminality
- most crime produces little material reward e.g. vandalism, but still happens as people are frustrated that they cant develop status or achieve social goals
- gain respect and prestige through crime instead of material wealth
define anomie
a concept used by Durkheim to describe a state of normlessness, in which social bonds which hold a society together have broken down, leading to a lack of social order.
the individual aspect of this concept was developed by Merton, describing how individuals may experience anomie when society’s goals and values seem unachievable, creating a strain and potentially leading to deviance.
Hirschi - crime and deviance (functionalism)
looks at why people don’t commit crimes
4 types of social bonds that produce conformity
1. attachment 2. commitment 3. involvement 4. belief
these controls are linked to Durkheim’s anomie and egoism and are products of deregulation
weakness of Durkheim - crime and deviance (functionalism )
- fail to explain why certain social groups commit crime
- ignore the fact that some crimes are always dysfunctional for the victims - rape, child abuse, murder
- Marxists = exaggerate the value consensus and underestimate conflict
strength of Durkheim - crime and deviance (functionalism)
extremely influential and has inspired other theories of crime and deviance, especially Merton and Cohens
define egoism
a concept invented by Durkheim which refers to being detached from society or the community and/or excessive individualism
strength of Merton - crime and deviance (functionalism)
influential - still has contemporary relevance - jock young uses his ideas when he argues that much crime is the result of the bulimic society in which working class and ethnic minority communities are starved of opportunity and binge on crime to achieve social status
weakness of Merton - crime and deviance (functionalism )
- suggests that crime results in economic gain but this doesn’t apply to violent and sexual crimes that don’t have economic benefits.
- white and corporate crime are committed because of the increase of opportunity
- underestimates the amount of crime commit by the middle and upper class.
interactionalism - crime and deviance (assumption)
reject crime statistics - assumptions and judgements made by agencies of social control.
Becker - crime and deviance (interactionalism)
self fulfilling prophecy + deviance is socially constructed
- labelled as deviant
- a deviant label becomes a master status which colours all other statuses and roles
- take on behaviour related to this label
- a deviant career may begin when they join a deviant group justifying their deviance identity and activities.
not concerned with social and physical characteristics leading to criminality
Malinowski and public shaming - crime and deviance (interactionalism)
studied the Trobrian islands
found incest between cousins was seen as deviant but seen in day to day life
one man commit suicided after a rival revealed that he slept with his cousin as public accusation made it an serious issue for him
Matza - crime and deviance (interactionalism) 1
youth will drift in and out of deviance as they feel a moral obligation to obey the law but also feel a pressure to pursue ‘subterranean values’ causing conflict
- youth commit deviant acts to ‘techniques of neutralisation’ to justify the act and prevent a deviant identity forming
5 techniques of neutralisation - 1. denial of responsibility 2. denial of injury 3. denial of victim
4. condemnation of the condemners 5. appeal to higher loyalties
youths eventually grow out of drifting into deviance through a few will start to interalise the deviant label and become habitual offenders
Cicourel - crime and deviance (interactionalism)
influenced by Lemert
conducted a study on the juvenile system in two US cities - found that the process of dealing with deviance involves the police making their own judgements which are based on pre-conceived ideas.
then a decision will be made based on appearance, manners and replies to suspect
weakness of interactionism on crime and deviance.
- fails to explain the origins of deviant behaviour before the labeling process - Beck and Lembert: some people may commit deviant acts when they have never been labelled.
strength of interactionism on crime and deviance
+ provided a challenge to the prevailing approaches that blindly accept the typical criminal and official statistics
Marxism - crime and deviance
focus on the concept of ideology; system of idea and beliefs - the dominant ideology in society suit the powerful and their interests, and make sure the powerless stay in their place
Althusser - crime and deviance (Marxist)
the control of the proletariats is maintained through two sets of institutions
1. the repressive state approach e.g. police and government (RSA)
2. the ideological state apparatus - socialise into the capitalist ideology through the media, family and religion (IRA)
the IRA shows us who are deviant and the RSA scares us
Box - crime and deviance (Marxism)
illustrates how crime is a social construct made by the powerful.
as murder is seen as avoidable killing but there are also avoidable killings not classified as murder.
this happens because we are encouraged to see murder as a certain behaviour completed by a stereotypical person. - this allows murders such as employer act of negligence to be ignored
- crime is linked to social control as we are encouraged to think that there is a problem to justify a increase in policing and surveillance
- the real criminals are the powerful as they dictate what is crime and deviance and who commit crime to hide their own deviance.
Bonger - crime and deviance (Marxism)
there is a link between crime and economic conditions, this can been seen in economic depressions as crime rates increase within the poorest sections of society.
this because they are having to compete for the limited resources and capitalist climate of competition led to greed and individualism.
other related symptoms of capitalism are racisms and masculine violence because it is creating a sense of alienation.
Gordon - crime and deviance (Marxism)
the public fear and government control is on urban/ violent crime and ignores white collar crime.
he also states that crime is a rational response to capitalisms and their situation as they have to compete for resources.
an example of this rational response is Ghetto crime as it is hard to get legitimate jobs in this area.
- link to corporate crime
evaluations of the Marxists view of crime and deviance
- to far fetched to argue that the ruling class are deliberately conspiring to control and criminalise lowed classes
- laws do protect the rights of the powerless but also health and safety regulation and human right laws.
+ however, Box argues such laws are often framed and enforced selectively and so still operate to advantage the powerful.
The CCCS - crime and deviance (Neo-Marxism)
resistance to capitalisms is shown by spectacular youth subcultures and their style and attitudes can be understood in the context of capitalism
a complete theory of deviance should be examine the consequence of being labelled - should examine who has the power to make/ enforce the law and deviance needs to be understood in context to social conditions
Chambliss - crime and deviance ( Neo-Marxism)
2 year study on ‘ the saint’ gang (Middle Class white-boys) and the ‘roughnecks’ (w/c)
he found that the saints never got arrested and were able to negotiate higher grades in school because of their status.
he concluded that selective labelling meant that the roughnecks were less able to escape police attention.
ethic crime is a result of relative deprivation.
moral panic often feature ethnic crime
evaluations of the Neo-Marxists view of crime and deviance
+ a supporting piece of research is that of Cicourel who found in 2 similar US cities, it was the style of policing that affected the crime rates. therefore, labelling is an important feature in explaining crime fully.
- they use a Robin hood thesis and criticised for this by the left-realists as they state that in fact the W/C commit crime on the poor
weakness of the Neo-Marxist view of crime and deviance
their theory is contradictory as the suggest that ethnic minorities don’t commit crime but if they did it was because if a moral panic
right wing views on society and crime
functionalists and new rights
- believe that equality isn’t possible and that society agrees on role allocation
- blame the criminal/deviant for their actions rather than their circumstance e.g. poor socialisation and follow wrong norms + values
- solutions to crime = tougher penalties and stricter forms of control
let wing views on society and crime
Marxist and interactionists
- focus on issues of power and inequalities in society e.g. people are victims of their circumstance and equality should be the goal
- equality can be achieved by the state intervening (share wealth and equal chances) - blame society rather than the individual
- Deviance is a result of desperation or necessity or a reaction to a label or as resistant to inequality e.g. law isn’t applied equal
Hirschi = control theory (RWR)
- why people don’t commit crime - attachment, commitment, involvement and beliefs
- individuals with strong family and friendship networks + engage in social activities have a strong sense of morality aren’t as likely to commit crime
( support = statistics of prison population)
24% have been in care at one point in their childhood
42% had been permanently excluded or expelled
Murray - New rights (RWR)
young people in the underclass are inadequately socialised due to its dependency culture.
characteristics = lack of discipline and respect, criminality …
- over - generous welfare payment encourage reckless behaviour and single mothers raising boys.
- illegitimacy in an indicator for crime
girls with no fathers = emotionally damaged + search for a replacement - teen pregnancy
boys with no fathers = sexual predators + poor impulse control and lazy
Murray and Herrnstein - New rights (RWR)
consider the impact of cognitive ability/ intelligence on criminal behaviour
- correlation between low IQ and criminality and they also try to link low IQ’s with race
evaluations of Murrays New right view (RWR)
- Gallie = attitudes of the unemployment - strong work ethic and wanted to work - no evidence of a dependency culture
- Charlesworth’s study of deprivation = poverty effects peoples physical and mental health + most still have strong moral values and didn’t commit crime
- young = new right - sociology of vindictiveness = seek to demean those at the bottom (scape goats and easy enemies)
- Questionable evidence = IQ test are culturally bias - fail to consider other factors influencing IQ + criminality - prison system influenced by institutional racism, not effects of IQ.
realist criminology
shared basic ideas
- accept typical criminal shown in crime figures
- challenge traditional theories, for romanticising criminal and being to idealist
- concern about the corrosive effect which crime has been on communities
- traditional theories are to remote and offer no solutions
Wilson - right realism
- challenge mainstream criminology for overemphasising white collar crime
- morals of society must be upheld and trying to justify criminality is not desirable
- long term crime can accounted for primarily by 3 factors. 1. young males are most likely to commit crime (aggressive) 2. change in benefits + cost of crime 3. broad social + cultural changes in society
- these factors are uncontrollable (crime cant be prevented)
- poverty is the root cause = many poor people don’t commit crime = redistribution of wealth will not reduce crime
- crime can only be addressed by enforcing crime - less emphasis on the severity of punishment but on capturing
- environment plays key role in creating culture of order + acceptable behaviour (social order = maintained = will not participate in deviant behaviour + if police clamp down on crime more resistance will report crimes)
- impression that no-one cares will led to to disorder to prevalent
Young - right realism
argue that deviance and control cannot be studied independently of each other, as they are parts of the same equation.
Young - right realism
argue that deviance and control cannot be studied independently of each other, as they are parts of the same equation.
young - left realism
- navigate between 2 extremes: the hysteria about the underclass, media driven moral panics and the over-policing in certain communities, and the denial of the severity of street crime and its impact
- there has been a real and significant increase levels of street crime and the fear surrounding it - perception of crime significantly effects people lives and behaviour
e. g. 80.5% saw crime impacting their live and women don’t go out after dark
Matthews and young - Square of crime (LR)
- important reminder to criminologists that crime arises at an intersection
- understanding of the roles of offenders and victims must be supplemented with an understanding of the role of public opinion and informal control and formal control through the state
- crime is socially constructed
the box = criminal justice system, criminal offender, general public, victims of crime
John lea and Jock young - left realism
explain crime in terms of 3 concepts
- relative deprivation: these feelings arise when people compare what they have with the rest of society. fuelled by media and promotes materialism and false needs and links to idea of a bulimic society.
- marginalisation: those in the margin of society who lack goals involvement and representation in society = socially excluded - economically, social and political deprivation
- subcultures = a group with a shared set of norms + values which develop as a response of wider society and are unachievable. linked to relative deprivation and marginalisation as they create shared frustration that led to the development of lifestyle to cope with this.
young - left realism - relative deprivation and marginalisation
- developed the concept of relative deprivation and margination
- focus on how society economically excludes people (it’s increase)
- leds to social exclusion and the break down of communities and families
- this creates a culture of fear, scapegoating and social division and breakdown in consensus which leads to a less tolerant society calls this the sociology of vindictiveness = more crime.
weakness of left realism
- solutions are unrealistic e.g. addressing inequalities
- challenge for their lack of evidence - offender motivates
white collar crime - definition and description
white collar crime refers to crimes committed by professionals in the course of their employment
however is a problematic concept with a vague meaning and is used by different sociologists to refer to different activities
- some acts under the heading are not actually criminal offences but could be seen as criminal e.g. price fixing.
- Marxists suggest that they should be considered as crimes
Sutherland - white collar crime
defines white collar crime as a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation
Croall - white collar crime
challenges the use of the word crime in Sutherlands in definition
- as earlier points of some acts are not technically criminal.
he also questions whether the status of the person is always important since it may be a position of trust that courses the harm.
definition = an abuse of a legitimate occupational role that is regulated by law
white collar crime is often considering two distinct types of crime
- occupational crime - crime committed by employees in the course of their job
- corporate crime - crime carried out by businesses or corporations, often motivated by a desire to increase or protect profit.
a third type of crime = state crime - is sometimes considered as a part of white collar crime. this is when criminal acts carried out by national states, such as acts of war, genocide and arms trading.
estimating and investigating white collar crime
is difficult to estimate and investigate because people in powerful positions are able to use their financial and political power to escape arrest / conviction
also because official statistics under represent white collar crime and victims surveys cant accurately represent them as the crime is usually victimless or not published
Marxism - white collar crime
criminal law is a tool of the ruling class and thus the powerful can create laws to serve their own interests. this allows them to carry acts that are more damaging to society and also allows the powerful to manipulate the the public’s perception of criminality
Box (Marxist ) - white collar crime
point out that societies definitions of criminality focuses on w/c criminality e.g. we see theft as W/C shoplifting instead of ruling class or companies charging high prices - Thus he argues that white collar crime is not socially constructed as a crime.
Tombs (Marxist) - white collar crime
supports Box
analysis deaths at work caused by employers activity. - found a total of 1,316 total injuries between 1994 and 1995, 36 of which fatalities were caused by the supply/use of flammable liquids. 887 associated with driving in the course of employment.
these fatal illnesses led to a further 1702 deaths - leading to tombs concluding that the scale of unlawful workplace death vastly outweighs the number of recorded homicides
(834 homicides in England and wales)
Goldstraw-white - white collar crime
found that those convicted of white collar crime didn’t even see themselves as criminals
she conducted semi-structured interviews with 41 offenders imprisoned for white collar crimes and found that may didn’t see themselves as doing anything wrong and distanced themselves from other inmates despite the value of their offences ranged from £18m to £100m
this was because they felt morally justified for what they had done and highlight that they didn’t hurt anyone
friedrichs - white collar crime
Risk plays a large part in white collar crime. the chance of being caught and punished are very low, such as activity does involve a calculated gamble, which maybe apart of the appeal .
however he points out that corporate activity usually involves a cost-benefit analysis, in which the possible risk of cutting corners are weight against the additional point profit that could be gained. through the weighing of life against profit is fundamentally immoral and argue such acts are a central role in businesses
weakness of the Marxist view of white collar crime
however despite evidence about the prevalence of and harm done by crimes of the powerful, realists argue that what ordinary people care about and are frightened of is street crime.
- Thus Marxists can be accused of over-emphasising the importance of white collar crime, rather than accepting the fact that most crimes are committed by the W/C
explanations for white collar crime - personality based approach
psychologists argue that certain personality types can link to business success but also to criminality.
for example, successful people are likely to be ambitious but also unscrupulous and prepared to tread on others to reach the top.
this lacks personal morality and explains why successful people may cross the line or commit white collar crime
explanations for white collar crime - differential association
Sutherland and Cressey’s theory of differential association relates to the frequency of exposure to deviant definitions which can affect an individual’s tendency to follow a deviant path, as he/she/they learns appropriate responses to different situations.
criminal practices may become the cultural norm amongst people in some businesses, thus the white collar criminal may not see themselves as deviant but the behaviour as appropriate for the culture.
Lombroso - women commit less crime - relationship between crime and gender
argued that women were genetically less inclined towards criminality, showing a natural passivity and not possessing enough intelligence or initiative to break the law
weakness - although he said very few could still be born criminal
Thomas - women commit less crime - relationship between crime and gender
argued that men and women possessed essentially different personality traits, meaning men are more active in nature and women more passive and this affects their tendency to criminality.
in later work he argued that women needed more social approval and affection and they could achieve this by accepting domesticity (pathway taken by white M/C women)
poor women lack socialisation or morals and may refuse to take a submissive role but instead use their sexuality for emotional gain
weakness of Thomas - women commit less crime - relationship between crime and gender
criticised for expanding on biblical myth of the scheming and manipulative women and ignore economic hardship.
sex role theory - women commit less crime - relationship between crime and gender
contends that boys and girls are socialised differently, resulting in boys becoming more delinquent.
Sutherland suggests that there are clear gender differences when it comes to socialisation.
girls are also more supervised and taught to be passive and boys are encouraged to take risk and to ambitious.
therefore, boys have more opportunity and inclination to commit crime and if women do commit crime its because they were socialised in a more masculine way.
Parsons - women commit less crime - relationship between crime and gender
believes there are clear gender roles within the nuclear family. the father has an instrumental role and the mother has an expressive role.
girls are socialised to be more submissive coursing them to be less deviant. also the girl is likely to have a role model in the house, but the boy will not as the father is at work coursing them to have status anxiety and a difficulty to identify with the correct sex.
feminist explanation - women commit less crime - relationship between crime and gender
look at why majority of women don’t commit crime and highlight how in patriarchal society prevent women having less opportunities to commit crimes and reinforces natural roles.
Smart = suggests that girls are socialised stricter as parents fear stranger sex attacks even though boys are more likely to be victims of physical attacks.
for males, crime can be seen as role expressive but for women crime is role-distorting meaning women have more to loss when committing crime (double deviant)
Heidensohn - women commit less crime - relationship between crime and gender
argue that women experience four forms of control leading to them to conformity more rather than deviance - at home( housewife, mother) , in public (reputation and males monopoly of violence), at work (dual burden) and in social policy (welfare and benefits primary care)
females are particularly controlled through familial ideology as they are expected to be housewife’s and mothers
what is globalisation ( 3 definitions)
- the emergence of a global economic and cultural system which is incorporating the people of the world into a single global society (Cochrane and pain)
- a sense of transformations of the world, including changes in the concept of time and space, interdependent economies, increasing cultural interaction and increasingly shared problems (Cohen and Kennedy)
- globalisation can be defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vise Vera (Gidden)
issues with defining Globalisation
- the definition may assume that globalisation is a positive process = marginalisation and exclusion for those in poverty or without the internet
- may assume that globalisation occurs everywhere at an even pace
- assume that globalisation in cultural homogenization = has brought people how are spread out all over the world with similar cultural characteristics together to protect their rights and culture
- assume that globalisation is only an economic or political or cultural process = all areas of social life differently
- assume that globalisation all results in social change towards postmodern characteristics such as individualism and choice = cultural resistance
the digital revolution
is the technological change in the way information is stored and transmitted
- all information can now be converted so that it can be digital
- digitalization refers to technological convergence that leads to different types of information being stored in one device
- digitalization also leads to information being delivered instantly
Pountney - digital revolution
saw that digital platforms have developed apps that helps people with their life, relationships and everyday things
(see this as a positive)
1. development of new media
2. inventions of new medias
the global village - Marshall Mchuhan
As early as 1964, Marshall McLuhan predicted the emergence of what he called the ‘global village’. He likened communications and media in the 1960s to a giant central nervous system which ultimately would connect everybody in the world. McLuhan’s idea of the global village can clearly be seen in modern definitions of globalisation.
the global village - pountney
stated that technology increased peoples ability to create and maintain social relationships with people they know
- global village can also help make relationships online with people with similar interests
- she even suggests online relationships may be just as significant, as other relationships
what are virtual communities
is a social network of individuals who create an online community which may or may not reflect their offline lives.
- this community crosses geographical, political and social lines
- are becoming increasingly complex and in some cases, very realistic
- this allows people to share interests and create and transform their identities
5 forms of virtual communities
- message boards
- online chat rooms
- virtual worlds
- social networks
- specific services communities (where people who share a specific type of knowledge or skill can share ideas ) e.g. linked in
virtual communities - Carter
explores the ways that digital forms of communication are used in creating and maintaining relationships in an increasingly globalized context
researched on particular virtual community = cybercity
for 3 1/2 years
carried out participant observation and questionnaire online as well as offline semi-structures interviews
her research that cyberspace is just another place to meet people with similar interests
also found that people who meet a person online do in fact often then continue these friendships offline .
argued that cyberspace is becoming increasingly embedded in people’s everyday lives.
what is a global village
digital communications has led to an increasing volume of communication which does not involve face to face contact,
this has led to the idea that as time and distance shrink, the world is becoming a much smaller place.
this idea is sometimes knows as the global village
Boellstroff (2008) - virtual communities
ethnographic research on the virtual world second life. and explored a range of issues including sex, money, gender and race.
concluded that virtual worlds can change ideas about identity and society
however also observed that these virtual worlds can involve immoral and criminal actions and there is little regulation of avatar behaviour
e.g. in second life players can purchases an add on to rape other players.
define social networks
social networks is the people you know or are friends with online or offline
define networked global society
refers to the idea that in the post-industrial society, the focus is on information as a result of new form of communication
define social capital
a Marxist idea that refers to useful social contacts and networks which can be used to increase a person’s economic capital or to gain an advantage in a competitive educational system
Castells study - social networks
based upon Marxist’s ideas.
concluded that we were moving away from industrial age to the informational age because of the change in technology which has led to better communication but society is still focused on capitalism
this has led to a change in the importance of networks
networks have increased in effectiveness since the development of technology and now go on beyond the workplace.
in workplace they allow employees to work together on a job and get it done quicker, however networks in the workplace tend to leave out labour and factory workers as they are less able to develop their skills
this is leading to a decentralized society
media convergence
refers to the way that a whole range of different kinds of information can be combined and delivered in one format.
e.g. video, text, and images can all be stores and accessed on one website.
also refers to how social media platforms are able to communicate with each other to share contacts, - Facebook friends on Instagram
led to the convergence of various cultural ideas as well as economic markets becoming increasingly global rather than just national
have led to western capitalist ideas to become dominant as it has developed predominantly in western cultures
Boyle - media convergence
explains how the process of digitalisation allows media convergence
1 separate form of media can now be accessed through one device
e.g. watch TV or listen to the radio on your phone
new digital media are also often highly interactive meaning that people can shape new forms of convergent media in individualistic ways
Big data
extremely large data sets that maybe analysed digitally and non-digitally to reveal patterns and links in data
Past = info stored on paper - require literacy
Now = increase data recorded and collected due to internet
serval feactures of big data which make it different form other forms of data
1. volume
2. velocity
3. variety
4. variability
5. complexity
breadcrumbs = data trails we generate when communicating on a daily base
big data = volume
large access to info
factors contributing to the increase in data volume
- info stored about online communications, purchases and transactions
- info stored for an infinite amount of time
- unstructured data streaming from social media also forms another source of data and increasing amounts of info is being collected
- no longer faced with past issue of storage and digital storage has decreased in price
as a result the issue has occurred on how to decide what data is relevant and what to discard
bid data = velocity
data is streaming at unprecedented speed and must be dealt with promptly
big data = variety
data today comes in all types of formats.
structured, numeric data in traditional databases as well as unstructured text documents, email, video, audio, stock market data and financial transactions
big data = variability
in addition to the increasing velocities and varieties of data, data flows can be highly inconsistent,
for exampled, where an event or idea is trending in social media it suddenly becomes widely popular and briefly high profile.
daily, seasonal and event-triggered peak data loads can be challenging to manage. this is even more so with structured data
big data = complexity
todays data comes from multiple sources. and it is still an undertaking to link, match, sort and transform data across systems as well as to connect and correlate relationships
social media
refers to the participatory culture or network of websites in world 1.86 million in work
- relate to globalisation as both share info
OXFAM = study on news consumption 41% of population use net to keep up with current affairs
- leads to interconnectivity around the world
- leads to hybridity just like globalisation
postmodernist main ideas on digital global communications
explore what is possible rather than stating a negative or positive view
focus on the rapid change and reflect the shift in individual choice
identity - postmodernism - digital global communication
look at how/make sense of identity creation negotiate and confirm through technology
Collins (2005) = suggest that to understand the individual. by using a micro-approach, look at how they construct their identity online and offline to understand how they see the world around term
fluidity - postmodernism - digital global communications
Bjorklund = recently people have been using technology as autobiographies that are now updatable and manipulated, so the self can be redefined
Hart = also states that autobiographies use but the suggest that they show values (of society and individuals). this leads to online and offline identities being important. however, the online identity can be manipulated to find people with similar values.
survelliance/choice - postmodernism - digital global communications
case = suggests that the consequence of technology is presenting challenge to the adolescent. as they have to go through adolescence twice and makes it hard to remove mistakes. (visibility)
diversity - postmodernism - digital global communications
Miller - studied the use and consequence of social media around the world. (ethnographic method)
he looked at people online and offline lives and media
- impact relationships and key issues
- how it affected or used in instructions
- the insight it brings
- how it relates to problems or digital divide
- its welfare benefits
evaluations of the postmodernism views on digital global communications
+ most up to data theory, that best applies today societies
- postmodernist fail to recognise inequalities in access to digital technology
- they also fail to explain why there is a digital divide and muted voices
- they exaggerate the impact of digital communication on peoples everyday life
+ they highlight positive aspects of digital technology and changes in society, that other theories neglect
Marxist main views on digital forms of communication
argues that new forms of digital communication reinforce and maintain inequalities and ideologically control people in new and subtle ways
cornfield and Robins - Marxists - digital forms of communications
they look at how capitalists who control/influence the digital media are looking to make a profit and to make ideologically for the masses.
they also point out the media is controlled by a few - Murdock
digital communication are mediated by private companies/bourgeoisie. this concerns Marxists as there is little law to protect the vulnerable (moral concern) - false consciousness
they argue that the internet and digital forms of communication are another method of monitor people by the wealthy. thus, little incentive to protect the vulnerable online
Garside - Marxists - digital forms of communications
was concerned about the time spent online
he suggests 8hr 41mins were spent online by adults. he believe that this stopped they posing as a threat to the capitalist society
Breadcrumbs refers to people movement online. they are monitored by private companies. this helps them to control people and is guise as protection
strengths of the Marxist view digital forms of communications
+ globalisation results in the spread of western, capitalist idea
+ new forms of communication reflect the ideas of media companies who represent the ruling class
+ Snowden
+Rupert Murdock
+ digital forms of communication encourage passive acceptance of capitalism
Snowden - Marxist case study - digital communications
revealed the misuse of surveillance of digital communication
Snowden claimed the government how wrongly monitored personal and private communication
Murdock - Marxist case study - digital communication
owns over 1/5 of UK news consumes
Marxists concerned about the power and dominance of one person or company in relation to digital communication
weaknesses of Marxist view on digital communications
- Globalisation has resulted in class becoming just one part of many that shapes our identity, thus over-emphasis social class
- there have been examples of where digital forms of communication have led to social protects, challenging inequalities
- digital forms of communication allow people to challenge ruling class through interactive participation in public issues and the new for example
- law have been put in place to protect the vulnerable eg. sexual offence act that protects children from sexual groomers online
- it assumes a unified conspiracy on behalf of the provider of digital forms of communication. however the capitalist owner are not unified they compete against each other
feminist positive impact of digital forms of communications - sociologists
Haraway
Cochrane
Nakamura
Haraway - positive impact - feminism
argued that anonymity has led to the avoidance of oppression of individuals and alter negative stereotypes
as women can create new forms of identity with technological advance.
as they are no longer bound to traditional stereotypes
Cochrane - positive impact - feminism
identified the fourth wave of feminism
as digital technology has allowed/ encouraged women to build a movement online
- women voices are no longer muted. as they can protect against pornography and sexual violence
#metoo
- the fourth wave of feminism has led to women being able to communicate
Nakamura - positive impact - feminism view on digital communications
women from ethnic minorities are able to receive support on support networks
- offers practical and emotional support for the women discriminated against
feminist negative impact of digital communications - sociologists
Arlaccki
Hughes
Arlaccki - negative impact - feminist view on digital communication
state that the exploitations of the most undesirable side effect
- as a result of globalisation women are exploited e.g. Caroline creado-perez was a subject of online rape and murder threats
Hughes - negative impact - feminist view on digital communication
investigated sex tourism and the exchange of information to buy prostitutes and live sex video conferences.
- the centre of social justice found 94% of trafficking victims are women
- children exploitations and protection centre had 18887 reports of child sexual exploitation
impact of digital forms of communication - identity
- greater capacity of information given to individuals allowing them to have a greater choice on lifestyles and cultures over the world.= wider range of identities develop
- globalisation and proliferation of technology advance, with wider changes in society have led to traditional sources of identity, such as social class, become less clear. blurring the line between people resulting in a more equal society.
- however ethnicity and gender have become more a important factor defining people’s identity than social class
impact of digital forms of communication - identity as chosen and not given
- the emergence of online identities/ avatars sometime providing people with opportunities to decide their identity and appearance they may have
the kind of identities people take on and the way they represent themselves is revealing information
impact of digital forms of communication - we are all cyborgs now, Amber case
people use of technology is so embedded in their daily lives. they become cyborgs. she argues that the way people interact with technology defines their identity
in her study of effects of mobile use, case argues that we are in the post-modernism era - much more to select and develop different aspects of their identity in a global context.
case regards this as potentially beneficial but warns about the dangers of digital communication as the result can be hard to remove. - like mistakes in adolescence are recorded, so past mistakes are visible.
age and digital forms of communication - the ofcom report
more adults online - 83% online now
adults 35-64 has double the use of tablets = greater use of digital communication
60% use a smartphone - adult
2/3 of online adults have an online profile
age and digital forms of communication - Boyle
there is a digital generation divide because of the different reliance on digital communications
- not only based online but greater differences
young people are more likely to need new skills
- more keen to explore or because of technology
young people have a more importance on peer groups and social media
- influence them
age and digital forms of communication - berry
researched older people online
- revealed those with no access to the internet lack now common skills
- material factors = cost or lack of infrastructure
there also psychological factors like being able to access the web
contexts has been designed just for the older generation - making it more accessible
79% households have access to internet but below 37% of pensions have access
age and digital forms of communication - evaluation
- things are changing and older generations are using digital forms more - this may because they have taken longer to require the skills or only now see the importance
- increasing affluence, people can afford to buy various devices
- wider range of ways in which digital communication is being used leading to a greater appeal for older people - online shopping and communication
HARAWAY = impact of digital forms of communication - identity as chosen and not given
cyborgs help to Transend from traditional stereotypes/gender when socializing online
ELLISON = impact of digital forms of communication - identity as chosen and not given
in online settings ( e.g. chat rooms ) identity processes are complicated because identity cues are masked and can be selected.
thus identity is constructed by the user.
allowing individuals to have multiple online identities and activities often leave visible traces which can be captured, tracked, packaged and shared.
peoples online identities continue to overlap with their offline lives (+/-)
For example, UK first youth police/crime commissioner resigned because her post received criticism leading to an investigation into her online active. it was found that age at 14 and 16 her tweets were racist and homophobic
social class and digital communications
digital communications relies upon multiple devices and access to the internet.
devices = expensive and need regular updates and maintenance
digital communications are considerable considerable consumer choice and competitive. needing the latest technology is a must for those how can afford it but not for those who cant - this results in a digital underclass and a greater disadvantage and less social capital
this is because…
1. children’s education learning relies on digital communication (online resource, remote learning)
2. knowledge gap = internet provide quicker access to information
3. social network are dependent on digital communications
4. make people feel inferior due to a lack of access
5. info shared can shape cultural ideas and people can feel excluded from society
Mertens and D’haenens - social class and digital communications
Digital divide
the digital divide in brussels showed a link between lower social class and lower internet use
- 81% are users compared to 94% middle class users
additionally, individuals with lower social class focus their technology use on entertainment rather knowledge and information
- 79% own a console compared to the 65% of higher class
this shows that social class was the most powerful social variable ( even more than ethnicity and gender)
- this shows through similar results in Latin American (Brazil)
gender and digital communication = socialmedialondon.co.uk
women use the internet more at 71% in December 2012 compared to a 62% for men
gender and digital communication - Li and Kirkup
- investigate different uses and attitudes towards digital communication of genders in a cross-cultured context (British and Chinese participants)
- they found significant difference with experience, attitudes, usage and self-confidence between cultures
- the gender difference was also found in both groups
men in both were most likely to use chat rooms and email and play games.
they were found to have more self confidence about their computer skills and believed it was a male activity and skill - gender differences were higher in the British group
statistics on gender and digital communications in the USA
- younger women are more likely to use digital communications to maintain relationships (42% of women use media to stay in touch 34% of women between ages 18 to 34)
- young women use social media the less to find information
- women have an average of 394 posts on Facebook and 69% of Facebook gamers are female
- 40 millions more women visited twitter than men, Google+ was 64% male user based and 25% of men watch videos daily on YouTube
TURKLE - relationship and digital communications
express concerns over the ways our communication tools distance us from one another because we are alone together
in a room together but engaged by our phones
GRANOVETTER - relationship and digital communications
relationships with weak ties are becoming more important than strong ties relationships
this is because the removal of weak ties could do more damage to a person’s social network
KRAUT ET AL - relationship and digital communications
claimed that online social ties are weaker than those formed and maintained offline
FELD - relationship and digital communications
argued that people use the internet to evaluate themselves and others; their identity is in part determined by the network of friends they maintains.
ones social network is directly linked to the number of ties a person can maintain
positive effects - relationship and digital communications
+ another opportunity to meet people
+ immediacy = people can be contacted instantly
+ an opportunity to meet people who you would not normally come in contact with
+ a way of people overcoming traditional barriers to meeting people such as disabilities, shyness, distance.
+ Miller = help people find and cultivate relationships = stop isolation
+ Shaw and Grant = loneliness, depression and social support were positively affected by online chat sessions
+ leads to the embrace of common ideology e.g. religion
negative effects - relationship and digital communications
- a lack of privacy or differing
- hard to switch off
- having to come into contact with people that the person may not want to
- people’s offline relationships suffer as a result of the time spent with online relationships
- Miller = act as instrument to breakup marriages and relationships
- leads to depression, loneness and stress (positive correlation)
- leads to religious fundamentalists groups e.g. ISIS (texts are interpret literarily) these groups want to go back to traditional ways
social movement and new social media = main points
difficult to measure impact of social media
used by both activist and the regimes/authorities
to..
1. protect interest
2. counter activists effort
3. state owned media
the Facebook effect Kirkpatrick - social movement and new social media
Facebook site catalyst - playing a mayor part in contributing and shaping social movement
Columbia = 10 million people in street demonstration against violence and kidnapping from the revolutionary armed forces
not an isolated cases - shows social media contributes to social movement
digital communication make mobile change - reasons:
1. immediate = to warn and prepare
2. reaches large number - simultaneously
3. anonymity - human rights abuse
4. provides a voice e.g. Syrian women
5. challenges - biased and inaccurate reporting
6. speak out - where political activism is surprised
conflict and change = middle east - social movement and social media
effect of social media on social protest in the middle east
in past the use of social media and internet in the Arab world was limited to social elite
due to fact the access of the internet had been restrictions by state
this was because fears from the ruling group that western ideologies was damaging to traditional ideas
in 2011 the Arab world brought social media to the forefront = twitter, YouTube, Facebook, weblogs - stating it played crucial part in revolutions that had taken place there
define cultural homogenisation
the developed world dominates the generation and use of digital communications by spreading their ideas
- western ideas = capitalism, patriarchy and leads to lack of diversity and consumer secularisation = religion importance declining
cultural homogenisation - supporting sociologists (Marxist and feminists)
- computer software is not localised therefore programs reflect westernised ways of thinking
e. g. Microsoft word is geared up to us English speaking market despite not being the most globally spoken language - leading to assumptions of organisation of written work and date. - advertising generated by the west is broadcasting globally - spreading ideas about what is desirable and acceptable
e. g. in sport events western products are advertised more, creating greater exposure and increasing sales - as they can afford it more e.g. McDonalds - antisocial behaviour online leading to a new norms for conflict of ideas - reflect the western world
e. g. BLM or all lives matter - the rise digital communications are highly unregulated. as doesn’t have the same kind of rules about moral guidance and ethics that are usually entrenched within local culture.
e. g. middle east countries want to protect their local ethics from western liberal ideas (Egypt)
define cultural defence
the realisation by a group that their culture is threatened by western idea and homogenisation, leading to them protecting and reinforce their culture to remain distinct
cultural denfence
- local practices are defended through the internet on western non-government sites
e. g. Greenpeace videoed a nuclear testing to spread awareness and protect the affect they have on cultural practices and the wildfires - protect against the western world - local conflict get international recognition leading to the protection of local people rights
- glocalisation = global ideas have been adapted to local practices
e. g. blogs focus on local interpretation of events and profile pages can be adapted to show cultural differences = Facebook added facilities for global pages to make it easier to use and to share business ideas and practices which reflect local issues - indigenous people use the internet to protect their environment and way of life
- role of internet in fundamental religious groups especially fundamental groups
e. g. extremist terrorist religious groups such as the Taliban, Islamic fundamentalist’s for example use the internet to gain support and protect their interests
