paper 2 - 2022 Flashcards
define validity
the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure
define reliability
the consistency of a research study or measuring test.
define representativeness
the extent to which a sample mirrors a researcher’s target population and reflects its characteristics.
define generalisability
the extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to other situations.
define value freedom
refers to the ability of researchers to keep their own biases and opinions out of the research which they are conducting.
positivism key concepts
scientific principles - "the science of society" observable phenomena - correlation and cause directly measurable - objectivity reliability - rigorous research quantifiable data social facts causal relationship Patterns + trends Value freedom
define researcher imposition
when researcher unintentionally impose their own views or frame work on the people being researched and don’t really get at what respondents think.
strength of the positivism theory
+ objective and scientific approach - free from bias and own values - use quantitative research
+ government more likely to fund studies as it can be generalised and aren’t bias
+ more reliable as is scientific
weakness of positivism
- ignore the subjective experience of an individual
- researcher imposition
interpretivists key concepts
subjective - meaning and experiences of individuals
verstehen and empathy
research imposition - having an option the research
rapport
qualitative data - feelings, meanings and experiences
high validity results - detailed and in-depth
interpretation
strengths of interpretivism
+ high validity (personal experiences and feelings on topic)
+ good for sensitive topics
+ more meaningful
+ reflexivity - aware of own bias and conflicting it
weaknesses of interpretivism
- unsystematic - snowball effect
- research influence and narrow focus ( interpretivist believe this is okay )
- unrepresentative (small sample and individual cases) and narrow focus
- reliability not guaranteed ( interpretivist believe this is okay )
- researcher bias
ethnographic studies
researcher inserts themselves into the natural setting of the social group being studied
observe daily activities
research design - informal or unstructured interviews also used + empathesis with people
strengths
strength of ethnographic studies
+interpretivists support this method (reliable results)
+ detailed qualitative data provided
+ high in validity
+ learn about cultures
weakness of ethnographic study
- researcher bias and influence
- time consuming
- need a well-trained researcher
- ethical issue with illegal behavior (research + participant)
what is respondent validity
A method used by sociologists to double-check validity of behaviour they might have observed.
It checks whether the sociological interpretation of why such attitudes have been expressed in a questionnaire or interview is supported by those who expressed such attitudes
what does respondent validity aim to do
It aims to address problems of interpretation by the researcher that potentially undermines validity.
It aims to therefore improve the authenticity of the data collected by asking the respondents if the researcher’s interpretation of their attitudes/behaviour equates with reality.
A researcher may do this through a follow up informal conversation
what approach is most likely to use respondent validity
Interpretivists are most likely to use this method because the type of research they favour (qualitative) is very much open to interpretation and can therefore be prone to researcher bias or misinterpretation.
longitudinal study
a study carried out over a long period of time or a number of years. this can be continually (observation) or on annually basis (questionnaire, survey, interview)
strength of longitudinal studies
+provide a clear image of the change in attitudes and behaviors over a number of years
weakness of longitudinal studies
- participants may drop out or researchers may loss track of them = undermine representatively of original sample.
- remaining sample = different to those how dropped out = undermine reliability and validity
- positivists = research team become to close to the sample = loss of objectivity
primary research
a methodology where researchers collect data directly, rather than depending on data collected in previous research
secondary data
a research method that involves using already existing data. usually by non-sociologists such as the government
theoretical factors - effecting research methods
positivism or interpretivism
quantitative or qualitative results
practical factors - effecting research methods
costs - size of team, funding, training
time available - process and collate (depend on budget)
subject matter - accessibility, problematicality, intrusive
social characteristics of research or participants - age, ethnicity, gender…, negative consequence of the data collected
ethics
Informed Consent Debrief Confidentiality Deception Withdrawal Protection of Participants ( can do cant do with participants )
hypothesis
is an informed guess that the researcher thinks might be true and that can be tested by breaking it down into aims and objectives.
informed because of sociological knowledge.
operationalisation
process of breaking down the hypothesis or the research aim into observable and measurable elements.
- social phenomena’s cant do this
sampling techniques
random sampling - sample frame systematic - sample frame stratified - sample frame snowball - general population volunteer - general population opportunity -general population purposive -general population quota- general population
random sampling
draw names or numbers
use a sampling frame - list of names or addresses of the research population
+ representative sample - same chance of being picked
- however may still be disproportionate of research population - bias data
systematic sampling
type of random sampling
pick every Nth participate from the sampling frame (1 to 10)
- doesn’t guarantee a representative sample
+ however, the larger the sample the more likely it is to be representative.
+ therefore less likely to bias to one group
stratified random sampling
random sampling technique
divide research population into a number of frames then systematic sampling each group to gain the research sample.
+ avoid bias sample - representative - correct proportions
- time consuming
quota sample
non- random sampling technique
like stratified sampling however researcher decides how many people should be in each category and then looks for the right number of people for them
+ used for market research, newspapers
- lacks randomness therefore bias might effect the sample
- questionable if it is representative of the whole population
purposive sampling
non-random sampling
choosing individual or cases that fit the nature of the study
+ guarantee researcher are researching the aim
- small sample
opportunity sampling
non-random sampling
similar to purposive sampling however make the situation or opportunity to be likely found in the general population.
+ easy to gain a large sample
- unrepresentative = participant may be similar
snowball sampling
non-random sampling
used when researcher experiences difficulty in gaining access to people who would want to participate
involve interviewing one person who fits the research needs and asking for suggestions of other people who fit the need and will be willing to participate.
+ help study illegal or socially sensitive activities
volunteer sample
non-random sample
advertise for research volunteers in a magazine or newspaper or internet.
- unrepresentative sample- similar type of people may be likely to volunteer
- may not be the target research population
pilot study
help the researcher be aware of potential biases
small scale dress rehearsal of the real study involving a sub-sample
help check: if questions are understood, its the correct sample, interviewers are trained, it produces correct data
types of questionnaires designs
closed or open questions
- quantitative or qualitative data
semi - structured interviews = self-report or attitudinal (scale)
strengths of questionnaires
+ reach large and more representative sample
+ postal questionnaires can reach a more geographically diverse sample
+ guarantee anonymity - beneficial for sensitive and embarrassing research
+ positivists like questionnaires - produces a lot of data, high reliability
weakness of questionnaires questions
suffer from poor question design
- biases: respondent states what they believe the researcher want to hear
- loaded questions leading to emotional response
- technical vocabulary / Jürgen
- different understandings of the questions
weakness of questionnaires
- cant be bothered to reply
- postal questionnaires may have a low respondent rate
- criticized by interpretivists = interpret questions wrong
- respondent may lie or misrepresent themselves
- imposition problems in closed question questionnaires
interviews
tend to be recorded
structured or unstructured or semi structured
qualitative results
strength of interviews
+ study areas that cant be accessed with other sociological methods
+ in-depth and detailed results
weaknesses of interviews
- time consuming
- expensive
- need to recruit well trained interviews
structured interviews
list of closed questions - interview schedule
pre-set categories
interviewer plays a passive and robotic role
don’t deviate from the planned questions - no flexibility
covert information into quantitative data and express in statistics
strengths of structured interviews
+ positivists - method is scientific
+ closed questions and fixed choice allow easy comparison of data - correlation
+ quick to conduct
+ can explain aim and objectives before the interview - stop ethical concerns
+ better response rates
weakness of structured interviews
- artificial devices therefore led to false information (interview bias) = demand characteristics
- lack of rapport
- inflexible
- fail to capture the dynamic nature of social life
- interpretivist - imposition problem
- depends on the participant own remember of the situation
unstructured interviews
- interviewer has an active role - guided conversation
- no interview schedule
- follow up on ideas, previous responses, motives and feelings
- interpretivist argue this type of interview is ethnographic - natural setting
- in-depth and longer period of time
- one interview take place with one respondent
strength of unstructured interviews
- establish a rapport so respondent are more likely to open up
- very flexible allow researcher to formulate new hypotheses and test them with what arises in the interview
- help research socially sensitive groups
- provide richer and vivid data
weakness of unstructured interviews
- researcher may (un)consciously select material that support their view or hypothesis - bias material
- difficult to analysis - no pre-coded answers, qualitative, volume
- fewer participants = less representative and generalisable
- expensive = training
social policy
refers to attempts by governments to influence how society is organized and how members of society should behave by bringing in new laws
- often aims to bring social change
- have profound immediate effects e.g. NHS or more gradual influence e.g. tinkers with the educational system
social problem
is any type of social behavior that causes friction and misery.
for example, crime, poverty, educational underachievement, antisocial behavior or divorce
all seen as social problems by members of society and governments may be called upon to produce social policies to tackle them
sociological problem
focus on all the relationships that members of society enter into - married, children
e.g. sociologists are interest in why companionate marriage are more popular than open marriages
therefore, marriage is a sociological problem that requires an explanation
the role of sociology in relation to social policy
- distinguish between social problem and sociological problem
- sociologist aim to solve social problems or create solutions - e.g. crime
- recommend social policies through research into social problems - e.g. women’s vote
types of observations
direct observations
participant or non participant observations
define verstehen
when a sociologist employs a method that helps them to see the world through the eyes of the group being researched
define social class
term used by sociologists to describe the form of social stratification found in modern industrial societies.
- similar economic position, occupation and level of education.
hope - Goldthorpe classification
argues the divisions between social classes and looks at social mobility. 3 main classes - that are further sub-divided into 7 occupational classes service class = high professionals, managers, non manual workers intermediate = self employed artisans, routine non-manual workers class working class = skilled and semi skilled manual workers
NS-SEC
the national statistics socio-economic classification scale used to classify people by social class in official statistics e.g. census and government survey
define life chances
how some members of society have better opportunities than others to achieve the things in life that most people would see as desirable.
income statistics - social class inequalities
average income = is around £27,000
Adele’s income = is around £27,00,000 ( 1000x as much as the average UK worker)
define income
refers to the flow of money to a person or household over a time period. monthly or annually
the sources of income = earnings from employment, state benefits, pensions or interest/dividends on investments or savings
social class inequality in poverty
- child poverty action group argues that there are 3.5 million children in poverty
- some conservatives politicians have denied poverty existed at all
the consensual measure of poverty
- method of measuring relative poverty, involves asking a series of representative focus groups which of a list of item they regard as necessities
- items that were regarded as necessities by 50% or more were put into a list and surveys were carried out of a sample of the general population, asking them how many of the necessities they had to go without
- households that lacked 3 or more items were counted as poor
- households that lacked 5 or more were defined as in serve poverty
- in 2012 33% of households were defined as suffering from deprivation, compared to 14% in 1983
social class inequalities in social mobility
social mobility - the movement of individuals up and down the social scale
1. intergenerational mobility (between generations)
2. intragenerational (between classes in individuals working life)
open society = a lot of social mobility - referred to as meritocracy
closed society = little social mobility
Goldthorpe the oxford mobility study - John Goldthorpe 1980
- 10000 men
- used the hope-Goldthorpe scale to compare occupational classes between sons and fathers
- increase in absolute social mobility for everyone after ww2
- 1:2:4 rule of relative hope which applied to both generations
( an intermediate class boy has x2 the chance of whatever a working class boy had of reaching service class. and a service class boy had x4 the chance than an intermediate class boy)
hierarchy in the workplace - Marxists view
inequalities in the work place are due to the need for capitalist employers to keep wages down and profit up. - key workers such as managers are rewarded highly because of the way they act as agent of the ruling class ensuring the profitability of businesses for shareholders
sources of social class inequalities in the workplace and employment
- financial rewards = routine workers receive less pay and luxuries such as not getting longer paid holidays
- status = difference in status reflect differences in income. eg. different uniforms or facilities
- power and control = senior staff have more control eg. setting their own working hours and making decision about how they do their job. lower status paid workers have more supervision and have to follow set routines
- opportunities for advancement - in professional jobs, employees can work their way to the top. but in routine jobs employees tend to stay at the same level.
- job satisfaction - skilled jobs are more fulfilled but jobs can become very repetitive.
- job security - manual workers are more likely to loss their job
forms of wealth ( wealth inequalities )
- property wealth
- physical wealth
- financial wealth
- private pension wealth
cowell et al - wealth inequalities
81% of the net worth in the uk is in housing
life chances statistics (patterns and trends in social class inequalities)
ONS 2010 = in routine/manual backgrounds have x8 more likely to have been teen mothers
income statistic (patterns and trends in social class inequalities)
Adele earns £27540000 whereas an average employee has an income of £26664
wealth statistics (patterns and trends in social class inequalities)
50% of the UK population have only 10% of the wealth between them.
the poorest 10% have nearly no wealth
Birmingham commissions report 2013 = the age range of 55-64 was found to be the wealthy
work and employment statistics (patterns and trends in social class inequalities)
channel 4 = 77% of employees under 20 earn less than living wage but make up 2/3 of hotel/restaurants employees and 41% are in retail.
poverty statistics (patterns and trends in social class inequalities)
3.5 mil children are in poverty
functionalism on social class inequalities
functionalism argues that inequality is inevitable and desirable.
most important roles fulfilled by most able people - place in society decided by meritocracy
Parsons = (functionalism on social class inequalities)
the social class system is required by society and is desirable and supported by the social consensus
- all societies have the value that stratification is inevitable and desirable
- sees all societies as having a value consensus supporting inequality; general agreement about what is desirable and valuable in term of social class
- top occupations in the division of labour require more skills and knowledge and therefore need more reward
- there is equality of opportunity (equal race to top)
David and Moore - (functionalism on social class inequalities)
role allocation and performance class societies are meritocracies - ability determines position - high rewards motivate gifted people and are required to fill most important positions - class stratification is inevitable, universal and beneficial because it helps society to function better - main function of stratification is to allocate the right people to the right job. - also ensures that people in these roles preform them to the highest standard they argue that we can tell which role are most important by 2 factors 1. functional uniqueness 2. degree of dependence of others
Mcluin and Tumin evaluations of the functionalist view of social class inequalities
critique of Davis and Moore
- its not possible to determine the importance of a position
- is there a value consensus
- opportunity lacks not talent
- money isn’t the only thing that motivates
- stratification can be dysfunctional
the duck of Westminster as a weakness of the functionalist social inequality theory
shows money and power can be inherited and not given through the consensus
lord Alan sugar - strength of the functionalist view on social inequalities
there have been individuals how have come from a working class background to higher social classes
further weakness of the functionalist view of social class inequality
- jobs at the bottom may also be functionally essential to the smooth running of society but are not highly rewarded
- ignores the dysfunctions of stratification e.g. poverty
saunders - new right - social inequalities
support functionalist view
believe stratification isn’t inevitable but necessary because without it a considerable force would be need to motivate people to work as economic rewards would not be allowed
- believed everyone should have equality of law and opportunity but not equality of income.
- a degree of inequality is functional to motivate people
- attempt to equalise society are unnecessary
e.g. taxing the rich interfere with market forces and educational standards of middle class children is pointless as middle class children are more capable.
Murray - new right - social class inequalities
the underclass
- he believed that benefits create an underclass that lack motivation, with a culture of dependency.
- this drains taxpayer
- he thought children born into the underclass are poorly socialised
- there are signs of an underclass being in the UK with an increase of unemployment and birth out of marriage.
weakness of Saunders views on social inequality
the assumption that a capitalisms leds to freedom is flawed
evaluations of Murray’s views of social inequalities
- Murrays views are criticised for not representing all people in the underclass
+ support from conservative party - unclear who Murray is blaming
- Murray only focused on underclass and doesn’t consider the rich
Marxism social class inequalities
the economic structure or modes of production is the basis for all societies.
bourgeoise owned means of production and the proletariat sold their labour for a small wage to the bourgeoisie.
therefore the Bourgeoisie controlled the politician system as well as cultural institutions
- relationship based on conflict and exploitation
what issues do Marx’s argue are a result of capitalisms
- polarization of the 2 classes
- alienation dissatisfaction - with job and seeking satisfaction in consumer goods rather than human relationships
- economic crisis - recession would eventually lead to collapse of capitalism
Marxism - social class inequalities - the overthrow of capitalism
the proletariat has potential to revolt, but they must first shake off their false class consciousness
Marx believe that eventually this would lead to communism replacing capitalisms whereby means are shared and people would contribute to society and according to their ability and receive food, accommodation and health according to their needs.
inequalities would thus disappear
evaluations of the Marx view of social class inequalities
- economic determinism however = Westergarrd and Resler - class divisions remain strong and have widened in Britain and these can only be understood in relation to the operation of capitalism system.
- the middle class is growing, despite Marx believing it was insignificant however = Braverman - the proletarianisation of the middle class
- class consciousness and revolution hasn’t happened and there is little sign of class consciousness
- success of capitalism- it seems to flourish and even w/c have enjoyed rising living standards
Weberian theory on social class inequalities
conflict theory
3 dimensions of inequality in society
1. class 2. status 3. party = the politician influence an individual might have through membership of pressure groups trade union or other organised interest groups
status groups = groups of people who enjoyed similar level of status or respect in society. might be based on ethnicity, age, nationality, gender etc. and tended to shared similar lifestyles.
- these groups compete against each other for rewards of society.
in conclusion - Weberian theory on social inequalities
social inequalities is based on class, status and party.
this creates different status groups in society some of which are more powerful than others.
these status groups compete against each other for higher positions in society.
Weberian theory - criticize functionalism views on social class inequalities
- society in conflict not consensus
- social groups protect their positions therefore not meritocratic
- some social groups are more powerful than other
Weberian theory - criticize Marxist views on social class inequalities
- 3 dimensions to power not just social class
- conflict can be based on other factors such as age, ethnicity rather than just social class
- there are more social classes that Bourg/ Prol - importance of middle class
feminism on social class inequality
criticize Goldthorpe’s study of social mobility as it didn’t include women experience in the workplace - only husband
Abbott - developed the surrey occupational class schema to help explore the social mobility and the class situation of women the class schema = 1. higher professionals 2. employers/managers 3. lower professionals 4. secretarial and clerical 5. supervisors + self-employed manual 6a. sales+ personal services 6b. skilled manual 7. unskilled
women as a reserve labour of labour
Beechy - Marxist feminist
argue women form a reserve army of labour, that is a spare pool of potential recruits to the labour force which capitalism uses when it needs to and can hire or fire according to the demands of capitalism.
women roles in providing domestic labour and reproducing the capitalist workforce
Benston - women benefit capitalism in 2 important ways
- women provide free domestic labour, this is at no cost to capitalism
- women are also responsible for raising the future labour force at no extra cost to the capitalist class
Marxist feminist view on social class
argue social class in capitalism intersects with patriarchy to disadvantage women
Beechy
Benston
feminist theory criticizing functionalism
inequality of social class affects individuals
- inequality based on capitalism patriarchy means women don’t reach full potential
e. g. discrimination, class ceiling etc.
feminism and Marxism
Marxist feminism largely supports traditional Marxism but argues patriarchy is still a major form of inequality not recognised by Marx
feminist evaluations (Abbott)
- women’s occupation are not a good guide on class position as they tend to work part time, do childcare or become pregnant
postmodernists on social class
postmodernists theorists argue that class is losing its significance. they also believe Marxist and Weberian views are no-longer relevant in society - as people see themselves as individuals nowadays instead of being within a class
postmodernism and functionalism
postmodernism would criticize functionalism
- social groups are able to determine their own position - lifestyle choices
- social divisions not based on meritocracy but on sources of identity
postmodernism and Marxism
postmodernists would criticize Marxism
- social groups are able to determine their own position - lifestyle choice
- social divisions are based on lifestyle choices and identity - not social classes
- conflict is no longer based on social class
women inequalities - pattern and trends- work and employments
ONS (2013) = men make up the majority of workers in the top 10% of earners for all employees
UK feminsta NDA = 30000 women are sacked each year for being pregnant + 440 lose out on pay or promotion because of pregnancy
women inequalities - pattern and trends - poverty
Department of work and pension 2009 = 90% of lone-parent families are headed by women
men inequalities - pattern and trends- education
goverment data = boys are twice as likely to have special educational needs or and literacy problems and 4 times more likely to be excluded from school
GCSE results = girls are more likely to achieve A* - C than boys
men inequalities - pattern and trends - health
Department of Health = females are likely to live 4 years longer than males
ONS data 2011 = the number of men committing suicided is 3x more than women
men inequalities - pattern and trends - work and income
health an safety data = 95% of the 200 people killed in the workplace every year are men
ONS = men on average work 39 hours a week whereas women work 34hrs
functionalist view on gender inequalities - main point
functionalists believe gender inequalities is desirable and necessary for the family and society to function effectively.
the difference in male and female roles arises from innate biological differences which leads to different roles and priorities
parsons - functionalist view on gender inequalities
instrumental and expressive roles
- the husband has an instrumental role
- the wife has an expressive role
- division of labour is based on biological differences
- consensus division of labour is beneficial to both men and women
allow society to run smoothly and explain why women have different experiences
Murdock - functionalists on gender inequalities
studied gender roles in 200 societies and found that there were nuclear families in all of them.
he believed that this happened because of biological functions
e.g. women are less able to do strenuous tasks
Rastogi - functionalist view of gender inequality
human capital theory
human capital = knowledge, competency, attitudes and behaviours embedded in individuals
- men have more human capital than women
- women are less committed to paid work are more likely to take career breaks or to opt for part-time work in order to continue to care for their families
- men on the other hand build up their skills, qualifications and experience and are therefore worth more in the workplace
gender inequalities arise, as legitimate outcomes because women have a lower human capital than men
evaluation of the functionalist theory on gender inequalities
- feminists such as Oakley have shown that gender role are socially constructed rather than biological differences
- human capital ignores the structural constraints that may disadvantage women
- the functionalist perspective is criticised because it has not kept pace with social changes in gender roles
- functionalism tends to refer to the experience of white middle class people and neglects others
new right explanation of gender inequalities - functionalist support
new rights can be considered neo-functionalists who also subscribe to right wing conservative political thinking. as they share many of the assumptions of functionalism
- segregated gender roles as desirable - men instrumental and women expressive
- support for the traditional nuclear family and its role in producing a stable ordered society
- women should be in the private domestic sphere not the public sphere
- men should be the breadwinner and decision maker due to fundamental difference between them
Schlafly - new right view of gender inequalities
very critical of the feminist approach approach and makes a number of statements on the role of women. for example:
- the traditional family is the best way to raise children and children thrive on the constant care of the mother
- marriage and motherhood give women a new identity and the opportunity for all round fulfillment as a women
- rearing children is more satisfying than that to be gained from career
‘marriage and motherhood have their trails and tribulations but what lifestyle doesn’t’
positive of new right view on gender inequalities
supported by functionalism
Weberian theory on gender inequalities - main points
stratification happens because of class, status and party
status = women tend to have low status jobs in the secondary labour market and women hold domestic roles (low party)
social closure = men reserve and protect top positions for themselves
party = women tend to not participate in group that influence and exert power. political activism gap - electoral commission - less likely to be represented and volunteer - women are more likely to be poor than men
glass elevator - types of hidden advantages
stereotypes about natural leaders = men
women are seen as emotional
women obligations to childbearing
preferential treatment
Barron and Norris = Weberian theory of gender inequalities
dual labor market explains women employment patterns
primary market = good promotions, prospects and well paid
secondary market = low paid and poor security (women dominated)
Weberian theory of gender inequalities - occupational segregation
occupational segregation in the labour market = 2 types
1. horizontal segregation = jobs are associated with gender leading to influence in others.
equal opportunities commissions 2004 = horizontal segregation continues because of
- individual differences and human capital - career based on perception - discrimination - barriers
2. vertical segregation = men dominated the highest ranked jobs
- glass ceiling is used explain the social mobility between genders (invisible barrier) and concert ceiling (visible disadvantages) and glass elevator (hidden advantages)
liberal feminism on gender inequalities
argue gender roles are largely socially constructed through the socialisation process, primarily in the family but also through such secondary agencies as the educational system and the mass media.
this reinforces patriarchal ideas and reproduces a sexual division of labour in which women’s roles and status is inferior to men and they are channeled into domestic roles
- Ann Oakley
Ann Oakley - gender inequalities
the social construction of gender roles creates disadvantage
- gender roles in society are socially constructed - in the family socialisation reinforces gender roles through canalisation, verbal appellations etc.
- stereotypes about difference between males and females have been used to justify male dominance
Marxist feminists view on gender inequalities - social inequalities
argue women women are negatively affected by the combination of the effects of patriarchy and capitalism - the disadvantage faced by women must be analysed in the context of capitalist society
- women’s position in the family as wife and moms leads to them being exploited by capitalism
- these inequalities exist because men and women are encourage to accept the dominant ideology that the nuclear family is the ideal structure and inequalities are fair/legitimate because of capitalist society is presented as meritocratic
freely - Marxist feminist view on gender inequalities
women produce the next generation of workers
- the family socialises the members to accept traditional gender roles, passivity not rebellion and views women are subordinate through patriarchy in the family/work
Benston - Marxist feminist view on gender inequalities
women’s domestic work is unpaid
- benefits capitalisms as 1 wage is being paid, as women are dependent on men and if they work the would a redistribution of wealth.
- also functions to make male worker more effective.- housewife provide a comfortable home, meal and emotional and domestic support to no cost to capitalism
- women raise the future labour force at no extra cost to the capitalist class.
this keeps thing running in good order and is critical to nuclear family
Ansley - Marxists feminists views on gender inequalities
women soothe the stresses of the proletariat after a hard day at work
- women act as a safety value and the taker of shit
- husband take out their anger and frustration from the workplace on women in the family in the form of domestic violence.
- this helps maintain capitalism as the frustration is not directed at the proper target which is capitalism
Bruegel - Marxist feminist on gender inequalities
women act as a reserve army of labour
- family is central to women oppression
- the ruling class use women in the working class when needed and send them back later on e.g. in recessions
- women are most affected by redundancies
radical feminism views on gender inequalities
patriarchy is the source of oppression for women, as society is ran by men, in the interest of men.
men have the advantage in society with no interest in giving up their power and control.
- gender inequalities is an outcome of the collective effort from men dominate/control/exploit women.
- they also believe that revolutionary change can led to female liberation.
- family act as women’s main form of oppression as it allow a gender division of labour that reinforces the male dominance especially because men define a women role through patriarchal ideology
- some radical feminist believe there is a biological factor to women oppression in society however this shouldn’t mean that they are treated unequal
Millett - radical feminism view on gender inequalities
men originally got power over women because of biological factors but now technology and science has developed so men don’t need the power and dominance.
men will defend their power at all costs and will use violence to control women
control tactics - radical Feminists view on gender inequalities
economic subordination, threats, isolation and others
domestic violence - organised 2013 = reported 30% of women world wide experience abuse in a relationship.
- patriarchal ideology is used to enforce heterosexuality
- traditional nuclear family ensures male dominance and female subordination with unpaid domestic labour.
Engels - Marxist view on gender inequalities
suggest that women’s subordinate position is a result of the ownership of private property and the nuclear family
- as in capitalist society men gained control after women as they wanted to pass on property to their legitimate offspring
- the nuclear family also restricted the women’s sexuality (monogamy)
castles and kosak - Marxist view on gander inequalities
the reserve army of labour
- in time of crises women are employed to support the country but will be the first to be fires in a recession.
Benston - Marxists view on gender inequalities
by doing domestic labour women are supporting capitalism. as they are not getting paid. therefore the bourgeoises only has to pay one wage
evaluations of the Marxists view on gander inequalities
- have over-emphasis class and economic factors. Radical feminists = oppression of women was formed first.
- criticised for having a macro focus this neglect the small interactions that provide understanding.
pattern and trends in age inequalities - elderly - work and employment
- age discrimination can led to financial issues. Mori = 38% discrimination cases state age as the reason
- society determines the age when someone retires = age 65 in 2020 - some people want to stop working but cant afford to
- by 2021 33% of UK population will be over 55 years old. (time bomb demographic) course potential crisis high demand on health care.
pattern and trends in age inequalities - youth - work and employment
- a 16 year old has a minimum wage of just under £4 per hour whereas an adult is just over £6.50 per hour.
- under 13s are not allowed to do payed work at all
pattern and trends in age inequalities - elderly - wealth, income and poverty
- older people will have to spend more than 1/10 of their money to fuel their balls - choose to eat or heat
pattern and trends in age inequalities - youth - wealth, income and poverty
3.5 million children live in poverty in the UK
1 in 5 children in the UK are growing up in poverty
functionalism on age inequalities
maintaining social order is important for society and causes of inequality are cultural, whereby the individual’s norms and values play a key role
parson - functionalism view on age inequalities
society can be understood by the organic analogy which help social stability, however the troublesome youth or dependent elderly can threaten this social order.
- explains dysfunctional behaviour of youths as a bridge between childhood and adulthood; it allows for a more integrated society later. if police caution this behaviour, they will learn how to behave as functional adults
- as the elderly grow older they are less able to preform their roles, specifically at work. to maintain social stability, they need to acquire new roles, such as childcare for grandchildren
Eistanstadt - functionalist view on age inequalities
focused in youth being a time to learn their new adult roles, which is essential for social stability
Cummings and Henry - disengagement theory
links to functionalism
being with the idea that all people will die and as they age their abilities will deteriorate.
there is a mutual need (for society and the individual) for the individual to be relieved of their responsibilities.
therefore having a retirement age, allows for disengagement and opens up roles for others to take on.
evaluations of Functionalism view on age inequalities
- assumption of homogeneity in society and inequality
- not all elderly people deteriorate at the same age - Queen
- ignore negative experiences (38% of discrimination cases)
- not all elderly can take on a new role
- not all the youth will be successfully guided
Marxism theory on age inequalities
inequality can be explained by the needs of capitalism.
the youth provide cheap labour and they bring energy and new skills with them.
similarly the elderly providing free childcare is good for capitalism
Engels - Marxism theory on age inequalities
first used the term reversed army of labour in 1845 and it can be used to understand how the young and old are used at book times as temporary labour. this includes an increase in zero hour contracts and lack of sick pay or pensions
Gramsci - Marxism theory on age inequalities
argues that the bourgeois maintain authority by legitimating their position. this can be done through concessions such as child benefits and pensions, whereby people feel dependent upon the bourgeoisie and fail to realise the exploitation they are facing ( false class consciousness)
political economy theory - Marxism theory on age inequalities
Townsend and Phillipson argue that in order for the needs of capitalism to be met, the elderly are institutionally marginalised.
through forced retirement, the elderly are forced to become dependent on society as they are denied access to work.
this then lowers their status (which is linked to their relationship with the means of production)
evaluations of Marxism theory on age inequalities
- ignore the lack of homogeneous experiences of age
- ignore micro factors - class, gender, wealth, nationality, disability e.g. not in all industries are only the elderly marginalised
+ in the aging population there has been a growth of the ‘grey pound’ - being more of an asset to the economy
ethnic inequities = life chances
ONS 2014 = found that the whit ethnic group made up 86% of the UK population and ethnic minorities only made up around 14%
- some ethnic minorities (e.g. Indians) get a better education and do better in the labour market - some suggests this happened because of a change in legislation e.g. equality act however as a whole ethnic minorities do worse in education, work and housing despite law changing
ethnic inequalities = work and employment
1 way in which ethnic minorities are disadvantage in the workplace is the rate of unemployment e.g. in men aged 16-64 though who were Caribbean were 15% unemployed
- there is evidence of less favorable treatment in the recruitment process (wood et al)
- Davidson used the term concrete ceiling to describe the embedded discrimination that prevents ethnic minority women being promoted. whereas white women face a glass ceiling, so have an opportunity to break through.
wood et al
inequality in the recruitment process
found that discrimination in favour of white names over equivalent applications from ethnic application was 29%
ethnic inequalities = income and wealth
ONS data = 1/5 of people from ethnic minority groups live in low-income households
Joseph Rowntree foundation = ethnic minorities earn less than white groups. black men 10% less and black women 18% less - Bangladesh ethnic groups experience the work income inequality and the highest rates of poverty
ethnic inequalities = poverty
Joseph Rowntree foundation = living in a deprived are reduced employment prospects had a larger effect on ethnic minorities. Indian households are getting 83% of income from wages and self employment compared tp 74% from white households. Pakistani and Bangladeshi income is 67% from wages and self-employment
functionalism explanation of ethnic inequalities - main points
- early ethnic inequalities were experienced by immigrants as a result of cultural difference and their low skill level
- they believe that in a meritocratic society that ethnic inequalities would decline as immigrants would adapt to norms and values and climb the career ladder
Patterson - functionalism view on ethnic inequalities
the host-immigration model
this theory presence Britain as a stable, homogeneous and orderly society with a consensus over norms and values
however this equilibrium wad disrupted in the 1950’s by the arrive of immigrants, who had a different set of norms and values leading to a culture clash
- claimed that the host communities weren’t racist by unsure on how to act and cultural clashes happened because of fear from the hosts
Patterson - 2 causes of ethnic inequalities
host cultures fears of cultural differences
the host cultures resentment towards immigrants around resources e.g. jobs
a failure of immigrants to assimilate
if ethnic minorities continue to practice their cultural norm/value will experience hostility because their causing cultural strangeness but in the long term there could be racial harmony
Patterson - functionalists - 3 stages of assimilation
accommodation
integration
assimilation - physical amalgamation
evaluations of the functionalist view of ethnic inequalities
- naïve assumption that all ethnic minorities will assimilate
- postmodernists argue that Britain is a multi-cultural society, so we can co-exist
- Marxist argue they ignore the significance of capitalism
Cox - Marxist theory on ethnic inequalities
race is a human creation and racism was developed by the exploiters. racism developed from capitalism
- racism and colonialism go hand in hand and justify their exploitation of the workforce
- only the bourgeoises can be racist as they are only ones not exploited
- if capitalism wasn’t developed a racial prejudice would have never developed
castle and kosack - Marxist view on ethnic inequalities
reserve army of labour
- capitalist economies unstable as they slump and boom
- the bourgeoises benefit from a divide and rule tactic using immigrates as scapegoats
miles - Marxist view on ethnic inequalities
racism has been replaced with nationalism ( a new ethnic inequality) = British demographic party
- ethnic minorities are members of racialized class fractions. the majority are members of the working class, but they are also separated due to their ethnicity- they form subgroups who experience more disadvantage than the majority of the working class
- victims of racist ideology created by capitalism which prevent their full social inclusion and are subject to prejudice and discrimination
neo- Marxism view on ethnic inequalities
they argue that the racism found in the 70’s and 80’s was a consequence of a crisis in capitalism which saw a periods of high unemployment
position of ethnic groups in made worst by racism which draws on the colonial past (when UK claimed it owned India)- this racism is then made to scapegoat the ethnic groups who become blamed for any economic crisis
support for the Neo-Marxist view on ethnic inequalities
skinheads - racist views and football hooliganism + mac an Ghail = male crisis due to a loss of jobs
Brexit = scapegoating
evaluations of the Marxist view of ethnic inequalities
- economic determinist - Weberian argue this underplays the importance of race and ethnicity as a disadvantage in society
- ignore the ethnic middle class = there are increasing numbers of ethnic groups in the middle class
meaning not all ethnic minorities are disadvantaged in the UK - immigration laws have been tightened thus having higher skilled jobs.
- too simplistic
Weberian theory of ethnic inequalities
- focus on the difference in power and status between different ethnic groups
- some ethnic groups lack power and status in society this makes it difficult for ethnic minority groups to compete equally for jobs, housing etc.
- they suffer from status inequality as well as class inequality
Barren and Norris - weberianism view on ethnic inequalities
dual labour markets for labour
- primary sector = characterised by secure, well paid jobs with long term promotion prospects dominated by white men.
- secondary sector = consisting of low paid, unskilled and insecure jobs.
ethnic groups are more likely to be found in the secondary sector of employment. due to racist beliefs trade unions are generally white-dominated and have been accused of favoring white workers and being less interested in protecting the rights of black workers
Rex and Tomlinson = weberian’s on ethnic inequalities
studied Handsworth, Birmingham UK after a series of riots
they found evidence of an ethnic minority underclass caused by structural disadvantage
- they cannot access higher level jobs and face discrimination and are thus disadvantaged by society not their own culture - this was made worse by racism
- they found that blacks and Asians were concentrated in secondary labour market jobs
- the ethnic groups felt marginalised, alienated and frustrated
weberianism evaluation of functionalism
criticize functionalism - society has conflict not consensus - inequalities due to prejudice and discrimination that persist
weberianism evaluation of Marxism
agree that ethnic groups suffer from prejudice and discrimination and conflict exists in society
inequality is based on other factors apart form social class
define value freedom
refers to the ability of researchers to keep their own biases and opinions out of the research which they are conducting.
triangulation
The use of multiple methods in research as a means of producing more reliable data than a single method would produce.
