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AQA A Level Biology > Paper 2B Part 1 > Flashcards

Paper 2B Part 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the general outline for how bodies respond to change?

A

Stimulus  receptor  central nervous system (brain or spinal cord)  effector (muscle for nervous response, gland for hormonal response)  response

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2
Q

What two types of response can our bodies have?

A

hormonal and nervous

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3
Q

Define stimulus

A

Detectable change in the internal or external environment

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4
Q

Define receptors

A

Any structure able to respond to a change

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5
Q

Define co-ordinator (CNS)

A

The ‘switchboard’ connecting information from the receptor to the appropriate effector

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6
Q

Define effector

A

Causes a response (muscle or gland)

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7
Q

Define response

A

The output/change in behaviour

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8
Q

With heat on the hand as the stimulus, what happens in the rest of the system?

A

Heat on hand  nerves on hand detect heat  message sent to CNS  message sent to muscles in arm  move hand

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9
Q

Organisms react to stimuli in their environment in different ways, what are the main diffrences?

A

• The whole organism or only part of it could move in response• The movement could be directional or non-directional

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10
Q

What does an organisms reaction to its environment enable it to do?

A

to be better adapted to its environment

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11
Q

What are the types of response?

A

Kinesis, taxes, and trophisms

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12
Q

What is kinesis / kinetic response?

A

• Whole organisms• Alteration in the rate of movement• In response to a change in the intensity of a stimulus• Non-directional (not determined by the stimulus)

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13
Q

What is taxes / Tactic Response?

A

• Movement of the entire organism or cell• In response to and directed by the stimulus• Phototaxis = light, Chemotaxis = chemical• Positive taxis (towards + ) or negative taxis (away from - )

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14
Q

What is tropisms / trophic response?

A

• Movement of part of a plant• Directed by the stimulus• Geotropism, phototropism, hydrotropism• Growth response

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15
Q

Which responses affect the whole organsim?

A

tactic and kinetic

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16
Q

Which responses affect part of an organism?

A

tropic

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17
Q

Describe the processes involved in the transport of sugars in plant stems (5 marks)

A

At the source, sucrose is actively transported into the phloem via the companion cells. This lowers the water potential in the phloem and water enters by osmosis. This produces a high hydrostatic pressure, causing a mass flow towards roots. At roots, sugars are removed and used in respiration.

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18
Q

What Plant Responses are there?

A
  1. Phototropism: response to light2. Hydrotropism: response to water3. Geotropism: response to gravity
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19
Q

Where is IAA produced?

A

.IAA produced at the apical meristem, at the top of the plant

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20
Q

.Plants do not have a nervous system therefore they use what?

A

specific growth factors (auxins)

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21
Q

plant growth factors are more descriptive, why?

A
  • Affect growth- Are made by cells located throughout the plant (not organs)- Produced in small quantities- Affect tissues close by and sometimes tissues they released from
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22
Q

What is the main growth factor in plants?

A

.The hormone indoleacetic acid (IAA) – growth factor causing cell elongation

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23
Q

What is scientific research?

A
  1. Observe and try to explain it using prior knowledge2. Formulate a hypothesis that can be tested experimentally
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24
Q

Darwin’s Evidence for Tropisms: obersvation, hypothesis, and experiment

A
  1. Observation: Grasses grown always tilted towards the window2. Hypothesis: Light (stimuli) is detected by the tip of the shoot, leads to tilting response3. Experiment: 5 plants in different conditions, one normal, one with the tip removed, one with the tip covered by an opaque cap, one with the tip covered by a transparent cap, one with base covered by opaque shield, light faced them all in same direction. Only the normal, tip covered by transparent cap and base covered by opaque shield plants bent towards the light. Also the control plant showed smaller cells on the illuminated side and longer ones on the shaded side. This suggested that light affected the tip, causing it to bend towards the light by growing the shaded cells.
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25
Q

Some scientists went on to hypothesis that the response that darwin found in the plants phototropism was a result of:

A

a. A chemical produced in the tipb. A electrical signal in the tip

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26
Q

What did boysen-jensen do?

A

Used two different materials to suggest whether phototropisms used a chemical or electrical signalThey took three plants, with the first they placed a thin barrier of mica on the illuminated side, with the second they placed a thin barrier of mica on the shaded side, and with the third they removed the tip and put a gelatin lock on top then put the tip on top of that. The first plant bent towards the light, he second didn’t, but the third did. This suggested it was chemicals on the shaded side coming from the tip which allowed the growth towards the light.

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27
Q

WHat is Mica?

A

an electrical conductor that does not allow chemical to diffuse through it

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28
Q

What is gelatin?

A

conducts chemicals but not electricity

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29
Q

What was Arpad Paal’s experiment?

A

The tips of two plants were removed then placed back on, but displaced to the side (one each way). It was found that the shoots bend towards the side where no tip is present.

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30
Q

There are two main divisions of the nervous system, what are they?

A

Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

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31
Q

What makes up the CNS?

A

.Brain.Spinal cord

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32
Q

What makes up the PNS?

A

.Pairs of nerves from the CNS travelling to limbs and organs – sensory neuron, motor neuron

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33
Q

How are the CNS and PNS similar?

A
  • Both carry electrical message
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34
Q

WHat is the PNS and what does it do?

A

.Pairs of nerves from the CNS travelling to limbs and organs.Relays messages from the CNS to the effector

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35
Q

What are the two main divisions of the PNS?

A

somatic, autonomic

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36
Q

WHat is somatic?

A

(voluntary) nervous system, conscious and involves the brain

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37
Q

What is autonomic?

A

(involuntary) nervous system, subconscious – reflex arc

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38
Q

What are reflexes?

A

Involuntary responses to a stimuli

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39
Q

The importance of reflexes?

A

.Safety/protection.Immediate (fast).Innate (not learnt).Prevent the brain from being overworked by not involving the conscious part.Automatic (unconscious)

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40
Q

Why are reflexes good?

A

.The brain can focus on complex behaviours.Escape predators, gain food or mates

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41
Q

what are Reflex Arcs?

A

The pathway of neurons involved in a reflex action

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42
Q

Key structures of reflex arc

A

.Stimuli.Sensory neuron.Motor neuron.Effector.Relay/intermediate neuron.Spinal cord.Receptor

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43
Q

Define the key structures of the reflex arc

A

Stimuli The external or internal environmental changeSensory neuron The neuron which carries the signal from the receptor to the intermediate neuronMotor neuron The neuron which carries the signal from the spinal cord to the effectorEffector The muscle or gland which is stimulated to respondRelay/intermediate neuron Links the message between the sensory and motor neuronsSpinal cord The part of the CNSReceptor Receives the stimuli

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44
Q

What is a receptor?

A

.Any structure able to respond to a change

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45
Q

Key points about receptors

A
  • Receive information and pass it to the CNS- Are specific in what they detect- Two main components for receiving information
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46
Q

What are the receptors two main components for receiving information?

A

o Sensory reception gathers information (sense organs)o Sensory perception is making sense of this information (function of the brain)

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47
Q

What happens to information after it has been gathered by receptors?

A

.Sensory information must be converted into information that the body understands.This is done by transducers (converts energy forms) .Sensory information  nerve impulses.E.g. (a form of energy like heat, light or sound to action or potential)

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48
Q

Examples of receptors

A

.Pacinian corpuscle (skin).Rod and cone cells (eyes)

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49
Q

What does the Pacinian corpuscle respond to?

A

.Only responds to mechanical pressure

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50
Q

Where is the pacinian corpuscle found?

A

.Found deep in the skin:- Soles of feet- Fingers- External genitalia- Ligaments/tendons

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51
Q

As well as a receptor, what does the pacinian corpuscle act as?

A

a transducer

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52
Q

Describe the pacinian corpuscle

A

.The sensory neurone leads to a neurone ending.The neurone ending is surrounded by layers of connective tissue.This connective tissue contains blood capillaries and viscous gel, and is surrounded by a capsule

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53
Q

Why does the pacinian corpuscle need blood capillaries?

A

.It needs blood capillaries to supply it with oxygen and glucose so it can respire and produce ATP to survive, and remove CO2

54
Q

Why does the pacinian corpuscle need a sensory neurone?

A

.It needs a sensory neurone to transport the signal to the intermediate neurone or CNS

55
Q

Why does the pacinian corpuscle need a neurone ending?

A

.It needs a neurone ending to sense when change occurs and so send a signal, it’s in the middle so that even pressure is felt evenly at all angles

56
Q

Describe how the nerve membrane in the pacinian corpuscle works

A

.When the nerve membrane is at rest, the stretch mediated sodium channels are very tight and do not allow the passage of molecules – this doesn’t allow the diffusion of Na+ into the cell from the outside.When pressure is applied the membrane of the nerve ending becomes stretched, this causes the stretch mediated sodium channels to open and so allow the passage of molecules – this allows the diffusion of Na+ into the cell from outside

57
Q

How does the pacinian corpuscle work?

A

.Sensory neurone has sodium channel in its plasma membrane called stretch-mediated sodium channel.Permeability to sodium ions changes when they change shape.Pressure on skin = pressure on lamellae = pressure on neuron = stretch mediated channels open = sodium influx = generator potential (nerve impulse) occurs

58
Q

What is the pacinian corpuscle like when no pressure is applied?

A

.Stretch-mediated sodium channels are narrow.Sodium ions cannot/few pass through.A generator potential is not established

59
Q

Describe how our sight works, how does light turn into an image in our brain?

A

.Light passes through the cornea which bends it.Light goes through the pupil and is focused further by the lens.An image is formed on the light sensitive cells in the retina.Retina sends an impulses along the sensory neurones in the optic nerve.The brain converts impulses into pictures

60
Q

What is the retina?

A

Innermost part of the eye where light receptors are found

61
Q

What are the light receptor cells?

A

The eye has two types of photoreceptors, found primarily at the retina:1. Rod cells2. Cone cells

62
Q

How are rod and cone cells similar?

A

Both act as transducers.Both convert light energy into the electrical energy of a nerve impulse.Both are specific to different stimuli

63
Q

How do red and cone cells work?

A
  • Contain a specific pigment- Pigment is broken down by a specific wavelength of light- If broken down a message is sent to the brain
64
Q

What is there more of, rod or cone cells?

A

rod cells (20:1)

65
Q

What pigment is present in rod cells?

A

Rhodopsin

66
Q

What pigment is present in cone cells?

A

3 different pigments of iodopsin

67
Q

Do rod cells see colour or black and white?

A

Black and white

68
Q

Do cone cells see colour or black and white?

A

Colour

69
Q

Where are rod cells found?

A

Top and bottom of eye

70
Q

Where are cone cells found?

A

Fovea

71
Q

Which light intensity is required to break down rod cells?

A

Broken down at low light intensities

72
Q

Which light intensity is required to break down cone cells?

A

Broken down at high light intensity

73
Q

Visual acuity of rod cell

A

low

74
Q

Visual acuity of cone cell

A

high

75
Q

Neural connections of rod cell

A

Often share a single sensory neurone (retinal convergence)

76
Q

Neural connections of cone cell

A

Own bipolar cell connected to a sensory neurone

77
Q

To create generator potential the pigment (rhodopsin) inside the rod cells must be broken down, but:

A
  • Threshold value must be exceeded- Shared neurone ensures an additive effect of each lower light intensity
78
Q

Describe how blood moves through the heart

A

Deoxygenated blood vena cavaright atriumatrioventricular valveright ventriclepulmonary artery (out the semi-lunar valve)lungsoxygenatedpulmonary veinleft atriumtricuspid valveleft ventricleaorta (and the semi-lunar valve)rest of the body.

79
Q

Name the parts of the heart (not valves or nodes)

A
  1. Right atrium2. Right ventricle3. Left atrium4. Left ventricle5. Pulmonary artery6. Aorta7. Vena Cava8. Pulmonary vein
80
Q

Two nodes control the heart beat, together they initiate the cardiac cycle, what are they?

A

.Sinoatrial node (SAN) – the natural pacemaker.Atrioventricular node (AV)

81
Q

Describe how the heart is made to beat?

A
  1. SAN sends an electrical impulse across the atria, the atria contracts2. The AVN is non-conductive and stops the impulse travelling to the ventricles3. The electrical activity travels to the AVN4. After a pause, the AVN sends an impulse down the bundle of his5. The bundle of his conducts the impulse through the purkinje fibres6. This causes the contraction of the left and right ventricles from the bottom up
82
Q

Why is the SAN considered the natural pacemaker?

A

as it sets the electrical output, and so makes the heart pump

83
Q

Why are the purkinje fibres important?

A

as they make sure the electrical signal is sent to all the muscle cells so that the heart contracts fully

84
Q

Where does the ventricle contract from?

A

The apex

85
Q

What is the medulla oblongata?

A

.A cone shaped neuronal mass.Responsible for involuntary functions.Contains the cardiac, respiratory and vomiting centres.Controls breathing, heart rate and blood pressure

86
Q

What two centres are in the cardiac centre of the medulla oblongata? How are they linked to the SAN?

A
  • Increases HRo Linked to SAN by the sympathetic nervous system- Decreases HRo Linked to SAN by the parasympathetic nervous system
87
Q

What types of receptors are responsible for rate of heart beat?

A
  • Chemical changes in the bloodo (chemoreceptors in the carotid arteries)- Pressure changes in the bloodo (Pressure receptors in the carotid arteries and aorta)
88
Q

How does the body respond when blood pressure is high?

A
  1. Nerve impulse is sent to the centre in the medulla2. The centre sends an impulse via the parasympathetic nervous system to the SAN3. This decreases the rate at which the heart beats
89
Q

How does the body respond when blood pressure is low?

A
  1. Nerve impulse is sent to the centre in the medulla2. The centre sends an impulse via the sympathetic nervous system to the SAN3. This increases the rate at which the heart beats
90
Q

Describe what chemoreceptors are and where they are?

A

.Found in the walls of the carotid arteries (serve the brain).Detect pH changes in the blood

91
Q

What are changes in the pH of blood caused by?

A
  • Carbon dioxide in the blood
92
Q

How does the Medulla Oblongata control blood pH? (6 marks)

A

.High respiratory rate.Releasing a lot of carbon dioxide into the blood.Carbon dioxide in blood decreases the pH.The change in pH is picked up by the chemoreceptors in the walls of the carotid arties.A nerve impulse is sent to the cardiac centre in the medulla oblongata.The centre sends an impulse via the sympathetic nervous system to the SAN.This increases the rate at which the heart beats.This means more blood is being pumped round the body, to pick up the extra CO2 and resultantly increase the pH of the blood back to normal levels

93
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

The maintenance of a constant internal environment.

94
Q

What does homeostasis control?

A
  • Water level (osmoregulation)- Tissue fluid- Oxygen levels- Temperature (thermoregulation)- Composition of blood- Blood sugar levels
95
Q

5 main stages of feedback mechanisms

A

Stimuli (change in the internal or external environment)  receptor (detects variation)  control unit (co-ordinates the response)  effector (returns the body to set point)  output (returns body to set point)  feedback loop (tells receptor about change)  stimuli  etc.

96
Q

WHat is thermoregulation?

A

The control of internal body temperature

97
Q

What is the difference between an ectotherm and an andotherm?

A

Ectotherm – maintains a proportion of their heat from sources outside of their bodies (lizards and snakes)Endotherm – derive heat from sources metabolic activities inside of their bodies (mammals and birds)

98
Q

What is the hypothalmus?

A
  • The control unit for most responses- Link the nervous system and the endocrine system via the pituitary gland- Responsible for the production of hormoneso Temperature regulation, thirst, hunger, sleep, mood, and the release of other hormones within the body
99
Q

Finish the stages of the feedback mechanism of an increase in temperature

A

Stimuli (increase in temperature)  receptor (skin senses the increase in temperature and sends a signal to the control unit)  control unit (hypothalamus)  effector (sweat, vasodilation, pilorelaxation)  output (reduced body temperature)  stimuli (reduced body temperature)  etc.

100
Q

Finish the stages of the feedback mechanism of a decrease in temperature

A

Stimuli (decrease in temperature)  receptor (skin senses the decrease in temperature and sends a signal to the control unit)  control unit (hypothalamus)  effector (vasoconstriction, shiver, piloerection)  output (increased body temperature)  stimuli (increased body temperature)  etc.

101
Q

Why is it good that the body has several different receptors?

A
  • Changes can be detected by several different receptors- The brain has a better picture of what is being altered- Allows a more informed response to be made
102
Q

What are the two forms of feedback?

A
  • Positive feedback- Negative feedback
103
Q
  • Changes can be detected by several different receptors, meaning that …. menaing that ….
A
  • Meaning that the brain has a better picture of what is being altered- Meaning that a more informed response is made
104
Q

What is positive feedback?

A

A deviation from normal conditions is amplified, leading to a further deviationThis increases any change

105
Q

Examples of positive feedback

A
  • Blood clotting- Oxytocin causes more contractions- Adrenaline levels
106
Q

What is negative feedback?

A

Initiating corrective mechanism whenever the internal environment deviates from its normal or acceptable levelReturns conditions to the normReverses any change

107
Q

Where does glucose in our bodies come from?

A

diet (carbohydrate break down) and liver (glycogenolysis, glycogenesis, and gluconeogenesis)

108
Q

What is glycogenolysis?

A

o Glycogenolysis – the breakdown of glycogen into glucose

109
Q

What is glycogenesis?

A

o Glycogenesis – formation of glycogen by converting excess glucose

110
Q

What is gluconeogenesis?

A

o Gluconeogenesis – production of glucose from glycerol and amino acids (liver)

111
Q

Why is the pancreas important?

A

The pancreas produces:- Digestive enzymeso Proteaseo Amylaseo Lipase- Production of hormoneso Insulin Decreases blood sugar levelso Glucagon Increases blood sugar levels

112
Q

What are hormones?

A
  • Chemical messengers- Secreted from endocrine glands
113
Q

What do hormones work on?

A
  • Act on target cellso Cells that have complementary hormone receptors
114
Q

The second messenger model of hormone actions is used by what type of hormones?

A

Non-lipid soluble hormones

115
Q

Where does the second messenger model of hormone actions initiate a response?

A

inside of cells

116
Q

Describe how adrenaline works within its second messenger model

A
  1. Adrenaline binds to a transmembrane protein receptor within the cell-surface membrane of a liver cell2. The binding of adrenaline causes the protein to change shape on the inside of the membrane3. The change of protein shape leads to the activation of an enzyme called adenyl cyclase, the activated adenyl cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP4. The cAMP acts as a second messenger which binds to protein kinase enzyme, changing its shape and therefore activating it5. The active protein kinas enzyme catalyzes the conversion of glycogen to glucose which moves out of the liver cell by facilitated diffusion and into the blood, through channel proteins
117
Q

What are the islets of Langerhans?

A
  • Hormone producing cellso α cells – glucagon (larger)o β cells – insulin (smaller)
118
Q

Cyclic AMP activates Kinase which converts what?

A

glycogen to glucose

119
Q

Insulin and glucagon work in what way?

A

Antagonistically

120
Q

Descibbe the negative feedback for Increase in Blood Glucose Concentration –

A
  1. Beta cells detect increase in blood glucose concentration2. Secretes insulin3. Binds to glycoprotein receptors4. Activates enzyme inside cell5. Changes tertiary structure of glucose transport protein channel6. Channels open7. More glucose is absorbed by their liver and muscle cell8. Glucose is converted to glycogen and fat9. Blood sugar concentrations decrease
121
Q

Describe the negative feedback for decerase in blood glucose concentration

A
  1. Alpha cells detect decrease in blood glucose concentration2. Secretes glucagon into blood plasma3. Binds to glucagon receptors4. Only liver cells have glucagon receptors so only they respond5. Glucagon binds to target cells6. Activates kinase enzyme inside cell which convert glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis)7. Gluconeogenesis also occurs, the synthesis of glucose from glycerol and amino acids8. Glucose is released into the blood sugar9. Blood sugar concentrations increase`
122
Q

What is diabetes?

A
  • Diabetes mellitus / sugar diabetes- Chronic disease- Cannot metabolise carbohydrates/glucose effectively
123
Q

What does Chronic disease mean?

A

o Persistent or long lastingo Oro A disease that comes with time

124
Q

What are the two forms of diabetes?

A

o Type 1 Insulin dependento Type 2 Insulin independent

125
Q

Describe type 1 diabetes

A

Insulin dependentChildhood onsetTreat with insulin injections, biosensor, exercise, and dietCannot produce insulin25% of diabetics are type 1Can be caused by an autoimmune disease, immune system attacks beta cellQuick developing

126
Q

Describe type 2 diabetes

A

Insulin independentDevelops in adulthood (40+)Treat with carbohydrate intake and exercise, occasionally insulin prescribed, some drugs also slow down glucose absorptionMostly developed from obesity and poor dietGlycoprotein receptors lose their responsiveness to insulin or reduced supply of insulin from pancreasSlow developingCan go unnoticed as symptoms less severe

127
Q

What are the symptoms of diabetes?

A

Very tired, high blood glucose levels, glucose in urine, thirst and hunger, urinate freuqnlty, weigh loss, blurred vision caused by the lends of you eye changin shape

128
Q

How does doabetes cause tiredness?

A

o Less glucose intake, less glucose for respiration, less respiration, less energy

129
Q

How does doabetes cause high blood glucose levels?

A

o Less glucose intake, it stays in blood fluid

130
Q

How does doabetes cause glucose in urine?

A

o High concentrations of urine, it is removed from the body as waste in urine

131
Q

How does doabetes cause thirst and hunger?

A

o High concentrations of glucose in blood causes low water potentials and thirsto Lots of digested carbohydrates removed from body so hungry

132
Q

How does doabetes cause frequent urination?

A

o Lower water potential in blood so water moves in by osmosis and removed in urine

AQA A Level Biology (19 decks)

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