PA - Overall Set Flashcards
What are 3 components of ancient cities?
Temple
Marketplace (agora)
City walls
What significant things did Christopher Wren do?
made a plan to rebuild London after the 1666 fire
- main avenues between religious and commercial facilities
What significant things did Georges-Eugene Haussmann do?
designed a plan for Paris
- straight arterial boulevards
- connect historic buildings, monuments, and parks
- implemented from 1853 to 1869
- intended to minimize riots, defend the city, clear out slums, and improve transportation
What significant things did Camillo Sitte do?
wrote City Planning According to Artistic Principles
- Curving and irregular streets
- Provide a variety of views
- More interesting
- Used T-intersections to reduce the number of traffic conflicts
- Create civic spaces around a pinwheel arrangement of streets (turbine square)
Who wrote Garden City and what did it teach?
Ebenezer Howard, 1880
- Combine city and country living
- 6000-acre tract of land owned by the people
- Civic buildings & park in the city center
- Next ring is housing and shops
- Industrial facilities in the outermost ring
Two cities in England:
Letchworth (1903)
Welwyn Garden City (1920)
Both were satellite towns, not independent cities
Who wrote Cite Industrielle and what did it teach?
Tony Garnier, 1917
- Separate zones for residential, public, industrial, and agriculture
- Separate paths for vehicles and pedestrians
- Long, narrow lots
- Ample open space between lots
- One of the first to use zoning ideas
Describe Philadelphia’s planning.
a typical early American town
- Gridiron street system
- Planned public open spaces
- Uniform spacing and building setbacks
Describe the planning of Savannah, Georgia.
1733, James Edward Oglethorpe
- Basic unit was a ward (600 feet square)
- Contained four residential blocks (total 40 residential lots), four civic blocks arranged around open central square
- Bounded by major streets in a regular grid
What was significant about the planning of DC?
It broke the grid system
What did Frederick Law Olmsted contribute?
Designed Central Park in the 1850s with architect Calvert Vaux
Preserved natural features while adding naturalistic elements
What was the City Beautiful movement? And how did it start?
- a reform philosophy with the intent of introducing beautification and monumental grandeur in cities
- upper-middle class concerned with poor living conditions in all major cities
- originally associated mainly with Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Kansas City and Washington, D.C.
- promoted beauty not only for its own sake, but also to create moral and civic virtue among urban populations
- started at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893
Is ADA federal, state, or local?
federal
it’s a civil rights legislation, not a code or standard
What are examples of state regulations?
state building code
also may include:
Energy codes
Elevator construction requirements
Environmental regulations
Fabric flammability standards
Specific rules relating to state government buildings, institutions, and other facilities
(hospitals, nursing homes, restaurants, schools, etc.)
What are examples of local regulations?
May have amendments to the building code in use
Typical concern local conditions (weather, etc.)
What did the code of Hammurabi say about building?
Issued a death sentence to the builder of a house that later collapsed and killed the owner
What did the Laws of the twelve Tables in Rome say about building?
included setback requirements (to allow for repairs and prevent the spread of fire
When was the first US code and for what city?
1625 for NYC
When was the first National Building Code?
1905
When was the first International Building Code?
2000
What are the administrative requirements for building codes?
- Info on what codes apply
- Duties and powers of the building official
- Permit process
- Info required on construction documents
- Fees for inspection services
- Requirements for C of O
- How to handle violations
What is the ASTM?
American Society for Testing and Materials
creates procedures and standards used by testing agencies
What does the NFPA do?
National Fire Protection Agency
develops standards related to fire safety
What is ASHRAE?
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineer
To serve humanity by advancing the arts and sciences of heating, ventilation, air conditioning, refrigeration and their allied fields.
What is IES?
Illuminating Engineering Society
What is the GA?
Gypsum Association
What is the ACI?
American Concrete Institute
What is AISI?
American Iron and Steel Institute
What is AISC?
American Institute of Steel Construction
What is AITC?
American Institute of Timber Construction
What is ANSI and what does it do?
American National Standards Institute
Does not develop or write standards
Approves standards developed by other organizations
What is NRTL and what does it do?
Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory (NRTL) performs tests for the standards
What is Underwriters Laboratories (UL)?
UL labels:
Listed Label - successfully tested and passed tests
Classified Label - product was tested for certain types of uses only, and must carry a statement specifying the
conditions that were tested for
Tests doors and other kinds of openings for fire protection:
UL 10B, Standard for Fire Tests of Door Assemblies
What are the 3 fire safety tests?
ASTM E119
NFPA 252
NFPA 257
What is ASTM E119?
- For wall and floor/ceiling assemblies
- A sample assembly is build in the lab and fire is applied to one side
Part 1:
- Heat transfer through the assembly is measured
- How long must the fire be applied before the surface of the other side combusts
Part 2:
- “hose stream” test
- The assembly is exposed to fire for one-half the time determined in the first part of the test
- A stream of water is directed at the assembly
- Tests the assembly’s ability to maintain its integrity during a fire and to withstand impacts (such as from fire hoses and falling
debris) and the cooling and eroding effects of the water
The assembly is given a time rating (the amount of time it can resist a standard fire test without failing)
1-hour, 2-hour, 3-hour, or 4-hour
(Also 0.5 hour and 1.5 hour, but not common)
Doors and openings can be given 20-minute, 30-minute, and 45-minute ratings
What is NFPA 252?
Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Door Assemblies
Similar to ASTM E119, but for doors
- UL10B, Standard for Fire Tests of Door Assemblies
- UL10C, Standard for Positive Pressure Fire Tests of Door Assemblies
What is NFPA 257
Standard on Fire Test for Window and Glass Block Assemblies
List 5 finish material flammability tests and what they determine:
ASTM E84, NFPA 265, NFPA 286, NFPA 289, NFPA 701
These tests determine:
Whether a material is flammable, and if so, whether it simply burns with applied heat or supports combustion (adds fuel to
the fire)
The material’s degree of flammability (how fast fire spreads across the material)
How much smoke and toxic gas the material produces when ignited
What is ASTM E84?
- Steiner tunnel test
- Rates the surface burning characteristics of interior finishes and other building materials
- Material is given a flame spread index (FSI) from 0 to 100 (glass-reinforced cement board is assigned an FSI of 0, and red oak flooring is assigned an FSI of 100 - it is arbitrary)
- Materials are classified into three groups based on their flame-spread characteristics:
Class A (I): FSI 0 - 25
Class B (II): FSI 26 - 75
Class C (III): FSI 76 - 200
Class A is most fire resistant
Class C is least fire resistant
Building codes specify the minimum flame-spread requirements for various occupancies
Also used to develop smoke-developed index (SDI), a measure of the concentration of smoke emitted by a material as it burn
What is NFPA 265?
Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Room Fire Growth Contribution of Textile or Expanded Vinyl Wall
Coverings on Full Height Panels and Walls
- Room corner test
- Alternate to ASTM E84
- For textile interior finishes, sometimes required in addition to or instead of ASTM E84
- Measures the contribution of interior textile wall coverings to room fire growth
- Textile is applied to three sides of a room measuring 8ft by 12ft by 8ft high
- An ignition source provides heat output of 40kW for five minutes then 150kW for ten minutes
- Textile receives a pass if the following conditions are met:
- During the 40kW exposure, flame does not spread to the ceiling
- During the 150kW exposure, there is no flashover and no spread of flame to the outer extremities of the 8ft by 12ft wall
What is NFPA 286?
Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Contribution of Wall and Ceiling Interior Finish to Room Fire Growth
Evaluates materials other than textiles
Measures factors such as heat and smoke released, combustion products released, potential for fire spread beyond the room
What is NFPA 289?
Standard Method of Fire Test for Individual Fuel Packages
Determines the fire response of an individual fuel package in a room when exposed to various ignition sources
Three types of fuel packages are covered:
- Single decorative objects
- Exhibit booths
- Theater and motion picture stage sets
Appropriate for testing materials that are exposed to air on both sides
What are 5 things zoning primarily regulates?
What a parcel of land may be used for
How much of the land may be covered with buildings
How large the structures may be
How far the buildings must be set back from property lines
How much parking and loading space must be provided
What is an easement?
- the right to use another’s land for a specific purpose, or to prevent the land’s owner from using it for a specific purpose
- legal instrument and recorded
What is a utility easement?
- allows a utility company to enter the property to install and maintain utility lines above or below the ground
within the boundaries of the easement - no permanent structures can be erected within the easement without the utility company’s consent
What is an access easement?
if a parcel of land is not served by a public road, an access easement may be granted that gives the landowner and the public the right to cross an adjacent property
What is a support easement”
for the construction of common party walls between properties
What is a joint use easement?
allow two or more property owners to share a common feature such as a driveway
What is a scenic easement?
- protect views and development in scenic areas
What is a conservation easement?
A conservation easement is a voluntary, legal agreement that protects the natural resources of a parcel of land by restricting future land use and/or development on the property “in perpetuity” (permanently).
What is a right of way?
Right-of-way - the legal right of one party or the public to traverse land belonging to another
Often refers to the public land used for streets and sidewalks
What is a restrictive deed?
a deed to a property that contains a provision that restricts the use of the property by the buyer
- Legal and enforceable if they are reasonable and in the public interest
- Often used in residential subdivisions to maintain a desired uniformity of appearance
What is an affirmative covenant?
- requires a buyer to perform a specific duty in the future (ex. Construct and maintain a fence)
What is a conditional covenant?
- permits the title to the property to revert to the original owner if the restrictions prescribed in the deed are not followed
What do “d” “G” and “L” mean in the context of site analysis?
d - Vertical distance between contours (ft)
G - Slope of land (%)
L - Horizontal distance between points of a slope (ft)
What are three ways in which solar orientation influences site planning?
Orientation of the building to control solar heat gain and heat loss
Location of outdoor spaces and activities
Location of building entries
What is solar altitude?
angle above the horizon
What is the azimuth?
angle north or south from an east-west line
For most locations in the northern hemisphere, what is the best orientation for the main facade?
facing south or slightly east/west of south
What are window overhangs used for?
block the higher summer sun while letting in the lower winter sun
What should be used to mitigate the sun on east and west facades
On east and west facades, vertical sun baffles are more effective than overhangs (because summer sun is lower in the
morning and afternoon, when it would be hitting these sides)
In hot, humid climates, what is another thing to consider with orientation?
take advantage of wind and cooling breeze
Where is the cool region in North America?
all of Canada, the northern part of the middle US, and the mountainous regions of Wyoming and Colorado
Where is the temperate region in North America?
- includes most of the middle latitudes of the US, including the northwest and northeast areas of the country
Where is the hot-humid region in North America?
includes the southeastern parts of the country
Where is the hot-arid region in North America?
stretches from Southern California across the desert southwest to portions of southern Texas
What are some orientation strategies for cold climates?
- Minimize exposed surface area to reduce heat loss
- Minimize northern exposure and northern door and window openings
- Air locks on entries
- Use building design and landscape to block winter winds
- Use compact forms
- Large windows face south, small windows east and west, and minimal or no windows north
- Use interior materials with high thermal mass
- Summer shading for glazed areas
- Dark or medium-dark exterior colors
What are some orientation strategies for temperate climates?
- Minimize northern exposure
- Block winter winds
- Maximize southern exposure
- Shade southern façade with deciduous trees, awnings, etc. to protect from summer heat gain
- Provide nighttime ventilation
- Solar heating (passive and active) works well in locations without excessive cloud cover
- Plan rectangular buildings with the long direction oriented generally along the east-west axis and facing slighting east
- Provide shade in the summer and allow sun to fall on glazing/building in the winter
- Use south-facing openings to capture winter sun
- Plan to use the cooling wind in the summer and block it in the winter
- Medium colors for building exterior
What are some orientation strategies for hot-humid climates?
- Maximize amount of natural ventilation
- Shade
- Minimize thermal mass
- Light colors for building exterior
What are some orientation strategies for hot-arid climates?
- Shade
- High thermal mass to store heat to release at night and cool during the day
- Pools can help to cool through evaporation
- Compact forms with small surface areas
- Minimize opening sizes
- Light colors for building exterior
What are some passive solar heating strategies?
- Orient the long axis of the building east-west so that southern collection surfaces face within approximately 15° of true
south - Integrate with daylighting design
- Thermal mass
- Plant deciduous trees to let sunlight fall on windows during the winter and shade windows in the summer
- Deciduous or evergreen trees on east and west to block the low angle of morning and afternoon sun
What are some natural cooling strategies?
- Passive solar cooling - shading, natural ventilation, radiative cooling, evaporative cooling, ground coupling
- Radiative cooling - uses thermal mass to store heat during the day and release heat to the outside at night
- Ground coupling - uses the stable coolness of the earth to cool a building, typically using ground-source heat pumps
- Use trees and other landscaping to shade windows, unless solar radiation is needed for daylighting or passive or active
solar heating - Used fixed shading devices (horizontal on south, vertical on east/west)
- Minimize glazing on east and west facades
- Use water elements and wind for evaporative cooling
- Use light colored or reflective materials to minimize radiant heat gains
- Limit the use of paving
- Take advantage of prevailing winds and natural ventilation strategies
What are some photovoltaic strategies?
Large surfaces needed for mounting - large, flat roofs or sloped surfaces will optimize exposure to the sun
Can be integrated with other building materials such as glass and roofing shingles (façade-integrated photovoltaics or
building-integrated photovoltaics)
What are some active solar strategies?
- Can be unsightly unless place on sloped roofs or are concealed with parapets
- Position solar collectors so they are not shaded by adjacent buildings and trees
- Position solar collectors so they do not reflect sunlight onto other buildings or occupied areas
What are the terms of the US Public Land Survey System?
Meridians (Guide Meridians) - north-south lines
Principal Meridians and Base Parallels - the meridians and parallels that serve as the basis for the grid layout
Parallels and meridians are 24 miles apart
The squares they form are called checks
Checks are divided into 16 townships (6 miles on each side)
Rows of townships running east west is a township
Rows of townships north south is a range
Why should changes to site topography be kept to a minimum?
- Moving, removing, or hauling earth in costs money
- Excavating and building on steep slopes is more expensive than on gentle slopes
- Excessive modification of the land affects drainage patterns (runoff that originates on the site must be managed
on the site and not allowed to flow onto adjacent sites) - Large changes in elevations can require retaining walls, which add cost
- Large amounts of cutting may damage existing tree roots
What is one way to minimize excavation?
Orienting the building to be parallel to the contours
What features do survey include?
Contours
Property boundaries
Easements
Existing buildings
Utility poles
Roads
Trees/natural features
slope formula for topography
G = (d/L) x 100
where d = vertical distance and L = horizontal distance
What is runoff coefficient?
the fraction of total precipitation that is not absorbed into the ground
extensive site development will increase this number
How do you control construction runoff?
Construct a silt fence (a temporary fence designed to allow water to pass through while filtering out sediment and allowing the
sediment to settle)
If runoff is greater than the capacity of the natural or artificial drainage, holding ponds must be constructed to temporarily collect site runoff
How is soil classified?
Gravel: particles over 2 mm in diameter
Sand: particles from 0.05 mm to 2 mm in diameter; the finest grains just visible to the eye
Silt: particles from 0.002 mm to 0.05 mm in diameter; the grains are invisible but can be felt as smooth
Clay: particles under 0.002 mm in diameter; smooth and floury when dry, plastic and sticky when wet
What are gravels nd sands good and bad for?
excellent for construction loads, drainage, and sewage drain fields
unsuitable for landscaping
When is silt stable vs unstable?
is stable when dry or damp but unstable when wet
Generally must extend foundations and road bases below
What happens when clay gets wet?
expands when wet and is subject to slippage
Poor for foundations unless kept dry
Poor for landscaping and unsuitable for sewage drain fields (retains water and drains slowly)
What are peat and other organic materials good and bad for?
excellent for landscaping but unsuitable for building foundations and road bases
Usually removed from site and replaced with sand and gravels for foundations and road
What is Electromagnetic Distance Measurement?
EDM
- Laser-based instrument with an onboard computer to measure the distance, horizontal angle, and vertical angle of a laser beam to a reflective prism target
- Need two people to operate
- Accurate to 1/64” at 1600 ft
- can include:
- Rectified photography
- Orthophotography
- Photogrammetry
- Laser scanning
What is rectified photography?
- Uses a digital camera to photograph facades
- Focal plane is set parallel to the façade and gives no perspective distortion
- Measured points are used to remove distortion and scale the image
- Dimensions can then be scaled off the photo
- Makes it possible to scale elements not readily accessible for hand measuring
What is orthophotography?
Similar to rectified photography, but uses digital photography and computer software to correct for optical distortion
What is Photogrammetry?
Photogrammetry
The surveying of objects or spaces through the use of photography and associated software
Stereophotogrammetry:
Uses two overlapping photos in a computer program to produce a digital stereo image
Stereo image can be used to make an accurate 3D drawing
Requires specialized equipment and training
Convergent Photogrammetry:
Uses multiple photographic images of an object taken at different angles
Measurements and 3D models are derived with the use of software that traces the overlapping photographs
Reference points must be established for the software to scale off
Slower than laser scanning but less expensive
Accuracy of about 0.05%
What is laser scanning?
Uses medium-range pulsing laser beams that systemically sweep over an object or space to obtain three-dimensional
coordinates of points on the surface being scanned
Creates a “point cloud” that forms a 3D image
From the 3D the computer software can create plans, elevations, sections, and 3D models
No surveyed reference points are needed
Accuracy ranging from 0.05% to 0.01% (or better)
What are applicable regulations to reference on existing buildings?
Building codes
Zoning restrictions
Easements
Deed restrictions
Covenants
Historic preservation rules
Energy conservation codes
Local agency regulations
What are the four levels of historic preservation (from most stringent to least)?
Preservation
Rehabilitation
Restoration
Reconstruction
What does preservation entail?
Attempts to retain all historic fabric through conservation, maintenance, and repair
What does rehabilitation entail?
Emphasizes the retention and repair of historic materials, but gives more latitude to replacement, typically because the property is more deteriorated before work begins
What does restoration entail?
Focuses on the retention of materials from the most significant time in a property’s history, while permitting the removal of materials from other periods
What does reconstruction entail?
The least historically accurate approach
Allows the opportunity to re-create a non-surviving site, landscape, building, structure, or object in new materials
What are 4 major considerations during programming?
Function
Relates to the people and activities within the space or building and their relationships
Form
Relates to the site, the physical and psychological environment of the building, and the quality of construction
Economy
Concerns money: the initial costs, operating costs, and life-cycle costs
Time
Concerns the past, present, and future as they affect the other three considerations
