PA - Overall Set Flashcards
What are 3 components of ancient cities?
Temple
Marketplace (agora)
City walls
What significant things did Christopher Wren do?
made a plan to rebuild London after the 1666 fire
- main avenues between religious and commercial facilities
What significant things did Georges-Eugene Haussmann do?
designed a plan for Paris
- straight arterial boulevards
- connect historic buildings, monuments, and parks
- implemented from 1853 to 1869
- intended to minimize riots, defend the city, clear out slums, and improve transportation
What significant things did Camillo Sitte do?
wrote City Planning According to Artistic Principles
- Curving and irregular streets
- Provide a variety of views
- More interesting
- Used T-intersections to reduce the number of traffic conflicts
- Create civic spaces around a pinwheel arrangement of streets (turbine square)
Who wrote Garden City and what did it teach?
Ebenezer Howard, 1880
- Combine city and country living
- 6000-acre tract of land owned by the people
- Civic buildings & park in the city center
- Next ring is housing and shops
- Industrial facilities in the outermost ring
Two cities in England:
Letchworth (1903)
Welwyn Garden City (1920)
Both were satellite towns, not independent cities
Who wrote Cite Industrielle and what did it teach?
Tony Garnier, 1917
- Separate zones for residential, public, industrial, and agriculture
- Separate paths for vehicles and pedestrians
- Long, narrow lots
- Ample open space between lots
- One of the first to use zoning ideas
Describe Philadelphia’s planning.
a typical early American town
- Gridiron street system
- Planned public open spaces
- Uniform spacing and building setbacks
Describe the planning of Savannah, Georgia.
1733, James Edward Oglethorpe
- Basic unit was a ward (600 feet square)
- Contained four residential blocks (total 40 residential lots), four civic blocks arranged around open central square
- Bounded by major streets in a regular grid
What was significant about the planning of DC?
It broke the grid system
What did Frederick Law Olmsted contribute?
Designed Central Park in the 1850s with architect Calvert Vaux
Preserved natural features while adding naturalistic elements
What was the City Beautiful movement? And how did it start?
- a reform philosophy with the intent of introducing beautification and monumental grandeur in cities
- upper-middle class concerned with poor living conditions in all major cities
- originally associated mainly with Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Kansas City and Washington, D.C.
- promoted beauty not only for its own sake, but also to create moral and civic virtue among urban populations
- started at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893
Is ADA federal, state, or local?
federal
it’s a civil rights legislation, not a code or standard
What are examples of state regulations?
state building code
also may include:
Energy codes
Elevator construction requirements
Environmental regulations
Fabric flammability standards
Specific rules relating to state government buildings, institutions, and other facilities
(hospitals, nursing homes, restaurants, schools, etc.)
What are examples of local regulations?
May have amendments to the building code in use
Typical concern local conditions (weather, etc.)
What did the code of Hammurabi say about building?
Issued a death sentence to the builder of a house that later collapsed and killed the owner
What did the Laws of the twelve Tables in Rome say about building?
included setback requirements (to allow for repairs and prevent the spread of fire
When was the first US code and for what city?
1625 for NYC
When was the first National Building Code?
1905
When was the first International Building Code?
2000
What are the administrative requirements for building codes?
- Info on what codes apply
- Duties and powers of the building official
- Permit process
- Info required on construction documents
- Fees for inspection services
- Requirements for C of O
- How to handle violations
What is the ASTM?
American Society for Testing and Materials
creates procedures and standards used by testing agencies
What does the NFPA do?
National Fire Protection Agency
develops standards related to fire safety
What is ASHRAE?
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineer
To serve humanity by advancing the arts and sciences of heating, ventilation, air conditioning, refrigeration and their allied fields.
What is IES?
Illuminating Engineering Society
What is the GA?
Gypsum Association
What is the ACI?
American Concrete Institute
What is AISI?
American Iron and Steel Institute
What is AISC?
American Institute of Steel Construction
What is AITC?
American Institute of Timber Construction
What is ANSI and what does it do?
American National Standards Institute
Does not develop or write standards
Approves standards developed by other organizations
What is NRTL and what does it do?
Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory (NRTL) performs tests for the standards
What is Underwriters Laboratories (UL)?
UL labels:
Listed Label - successfully tested and passed tests
Classified Label - product was tested for certain types of uses only, and must carry a statement specifying the
conditions that were tested for
Tests doors and other kinds of openings for fire protection:
UL 10B, Standard for Fire Tests of Door Assemblies
What are the 3 fire safety tests?
ASTM E119
NFPA 252
NFPA 257
What is ASTM E119?
- For wall and floor/ceiling assemblies
- A sample assembly is build in the lab and fire is applied to one side
Part 1:
- Heat transfer through the assembly is measured
- How long must the fire be applied before the surface of the other side combusts
Part 2:
- “hose stream” test
- The assembly is exposed to fire for one-half the time determined in the first part of the test
- A stream of water is directed at the assembly
- Tests the assembly’s ability to maintain its integrity during a fire and to withstand impacts (such as from fire hoses and falling
debris) and the cooling and eroding effects of the water
The assembly is given a time rating (the amount of time it can resist a standard fire test without failing)
1-hour, 2-hour, 3-hour, or 4-hour
(Also 0.5 hour and 1.5 hour, but not common)
Doors and openings can be given 20-minute, 30-minute, and 45-minute ratings
What is NFPA 252?
Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Door Assemblies
Similar to ASTM E119, but for doors
- UL10B, Standard for Fire Tests of Door Assemblies
- UL10C, Standard for Positive Pressure Fire Tests of Door Assemblies
What is NFPA 257
Standard on Fire Test for Window and Glass Block Assemblies
List 5 finish material flammability tests and what they determine:
ASTM E84, NFPA 265, NFPA 286, NFPA 289, NFPA 701
These tests determine:
Whether a material is flammable, and if so, whether it simply burns with applied heat or supports combustion (adds fuel to
the fire)
The material’s degree of flammability (how fast fire spreads across the material)
How much smoke and toxic gas the material produces when ignited
What is ASTM E84?
- Steiner tunnel test
- Rates the surface burning characteristics of interior finishes and other building materials
- Material is given a flame spread index (FSI) from 0 to 100 (glass-reinforced cement board is assigned an FSI of 0, and red oak flooring is assigned an FSI of 100 - it is arbitrary)
- Materials are classified into three groups based on their flame-spread characteristics:
Class A (I): FSI 0 - 25
Class B (II): FSI 26 - 75
Class C (III): FSI 76 - 200
Class A is most fire resistant
Class C is least fire resistant
Building codes specify the minimum flame-spread requirements for various occupancies
Also used to develop smoke-developed index (SDI), a measure of the concentration of smoke emitted by a material as it burn
What is NFPA 265?
Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Room Fire Growth Contribution of Textile or Expanded Vinyl Wall
Coverings on Full Height Panels and Walls
- Room corner test
- Alternate to ASTM E84
- For textile interior finishes, sometimes required in addition to or instead of ASTM E84
- Measures the contribution of interior textile wall coverings to room fire growth
- Textile is applied to three sides of a room measuring 8ft by 12ft by 8ft high
- An ignition source provides heat output of 40kW for five minutes then 150kW for ten minutes
- Textile receives a pass if the following conditions are met:
- During the 40kW exposure, flame does not spread to the ceiling
- During the 150kW exposure, there is no flashover and no spread of flame to the outer extremities of the 8ft by 12ft wall
What is NFPA 286?
Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Contribution of Wall and Ceiling Interior Finish to Room Fire Growth
Evaluates materials other than textiles
Measures factors such as heat and smoke released, combustion products released, potential for fire spread beyond the room
What is NFPA 289?
Standard Method of Fire Test for Individual Fuel Packages
Determines the fire response of an individual fuel package in a room when exposed to various ignition sources
Three types of fuel packages are covered:
- Single decorative objects
- Exhibit booths
- Theater and motion picture stage sets
Appropriate for testing materials that are exposed to air on both sides
What are 5 things zoning primarily regulates?
What a parcel of land may be used for
How much of the land may be covered with buildings
How large the structures may be
How far the buildings must be set back from property lines
How much parking and loading space must be provided
What is an easement?
- the right to use another’s land for a specific purpose, or to prevent the land’s owner from using it for a specific purpose
- legal instrument and recorded
What is a utility easement?
- allows a utility company to enter the property to install and maintain utility lines above or below the ground
within the boundaries of the easement - no permanent structures can be erected within the easement without the utility company’s consent
What is an access easement?
if a parcel of land is not served by a public road, an access easement may be granted that gives the landowner and the public the right to cross an adjacent property
What is a support easement”
for the construction of common party walls between properties
What is a joint use easement?
allow two or more property owners to share a common feature such as a driveway
What is a scenic easement?
- protect views and development in scenic areas
What is a conservation easement?
A conservation easement is a voluntary, legal agreement that protects the natural resources of a parcel of land by restricting future land use and/or development on the property “in perpetuity” (permanently).
What is a right of way?
Right-of-way - the legal right of one party or the public to traverse land belonging to another
Often refers to the public land used for streets and sidewalks
What is a restrictive deed?
a deed to a property that contains a provision that restricts the use of the property by the buyer
- Legal and enforceable if they are reasonable and in the public interest
- Often used in residential subdivisions to maintain a desired uniformity of appearance
What is an affirmative covenant?
- requires a buyer to perform a specific duty in the future (ex. Construct and maintain a fence)
What is a conditional covenant?
- permits the title to the property to revert to the original owner if the restrictions prescribed in the deed are not followed
What do “d” “G” and “L” mean in the context of site analysis?
d - Vertical distance between contours (ft)
G - Slope of land (%)
L - Horizontal distance between points of a slope (ft)
What are three ways in which solar orientation influences site planning?
Orientation of the building to control solar heat gain and heat loss
Location of outdoor spaces and activities
Location of building entries
What is solar altitude?
angle above the horizon
What is the azimuth?
angle north or south from an east-west line
For most locations in the northern hemisphere, what is the best orientation for the main facade?
facing south or slightly east/west of south
What are window overhangs used for?
block the higher summer sun while letting in the lower winter sun
What should be used to mitigate the sun on east and west facades
On east and west facades, vertical sun baffles are more effective than overhangs (because summer sun is lower in the
morning and afternoon, when it would be hitting these sides)
In hot, humid climates, what is another thing to consider with orientation?
take advantage of wind and cooling breeze
Where is the cool region in North America?
all of Canada, the northern part of the middle US, and the mountainous regions of Wyoming and Colorado
Where is the temperate region in North America?
- includes most of the middle latitudes of the US, including the northwest and northeast areas of the country
Where is the hot-humid region in North America?
includes the southeastern parts of the country
Where is the hot-arid region in North America?
stretches from Southern California across the desert southwest to portions of southern Texas
What are some orientation strategies for cold climates?
- Minimize exposed surface area to reduce heat loss
- Minimize northern exposure and northern door and window openings
- Air locks on entries
- Use building design and landscape to block winter winds
- Use compact forms
- Large windows face south, small windows east and west, and minimal or no windows north
- Use interior materials with high thermal mass
- Summer shading for glazed areas
- Dark or medium-dark exterior colors
What are some orientation strategies for temperate climates?
- Minimize northern exposure
- Block winter winds
- Maximize southern exposure
- Shade southern façade with deciduous trees, awnings, etc. to protect from summer heat gain
- Provide nighttime ventilation
- Solar heating (passive and active) works well in locations without excessive cloud cover
- Plan rectangular buildings with the long direction oriented generally along the east-west axis and facing slighting east
- Provide shade in the summer and allow sun to fall on glazing/building in the winter
- Use south-facing openings to capture winter sun
- Plan to use the cooling wind in the summer and block it in the winter
- Medium colors for building exterior
What are some orientation strategies for hot-humid climates?
- Maximize amount of natural ventilation
- Shade
- Minimize thermal mass
- Light colors for building exterior
What are some orientation strategies for hot-arid climates?
- Shade
- High thermal mass to store heat to release at night and cool during the day
- Pools can help to cool through evaporation
- Compact forms with small surface areas
- Minimize opening sizes
- Light colors for building exterior
What are some passive solar heating strategies?
- Orient the long axis of the building east-west so that southern collection surfaces face within approximately 15° of true
south - Integrate with daylighting design
- Thermal mass
- Plant deciduous trees to let sunlight fall on windows during the winter and shade windows in the summer
- Deciduous or evergreen trees on east and west to block the low angle of morning and afternoon sun
What are some natural cooling strategies?
- Passive solar cooling - shading, natural ventilation, radiative cooling, evaporative cooling, ground coupling
- Radiative cooling - uses thermal mass to store heat during the day and release heat to the outside at night
- Ground coupling - uses the stable coolness of the earth to cool a building, typically using ground-source heat pumps
- Use trees and other landscaping to shade windows, unless solar radiation is needed for daylighting or passive or active
solar heating - Used fixed shading devices (horizontal on south, vertical on east/west)
- Minimize glazing on east and west facades
- Use water elements and wind for evaporative cooling
- Use light colored or reflective materials to minimize radiant heat gains
- Limit the use of paving
- Take advantage of prevailing winds and natural ventilation strategies
What are some photovoltaic strategies?
Large surfaces needed for mounting - large, flat roofs or sloped surfaces will optimize exposure to the sun
Can be integrated with other building materials such as glass and roofing shingles (façade-integrated photovoltaics or
building-integrated photovoltaics)
What are some active solar strategies?
- Can be unsightly unless place on sloped roofs or are concealed with parapets
- Position solar collectors so they are not shaded by adjacent buildings and trees
- Position solar collectors so they do not reflect sunlight onto other buildings or occupied areas
What are the terms of the US Public Land Survey System?
Meridians (Guide Meridians) - north-south lines
Principal Meridians and Base Parallels - the meridians and parallels that serve as the basis for the grid layout
Parallels and meridians are 24 miles apart
The squares they form are called checks
Checks are divided into 16 townships (6 miles on each side)
Rows of townships running east west is a township
Rows of townships north south is a range
Why should changes to site topography be kept to a minimum?
- Moving, removing, or hauling earth in costs money
- Excavating and building on steep slopes is more expensive than on gentle slopes
- Excessive modification of the land affects drainage patterns (runoff that originates on the site must be managed
on the site and not allowed to flow onto adjacent sites) - Large changes in elevations can require retaining walls, which add cost
- Large amounts of cutting may damage existing tree roots
What is one way to minimize excavation?
Orienting the building to be parallel to the contours
What features do survey include?
Contours
Property boundaries
Easements
Existing buildings
Utility poles
Roads
Trees/natural features
slope formula for topography
G = (d/L) x 100
where d = vertical distance and L = horizontal distance
What is runoff coefficient?
the fraction of total precipitation that is not absorbed into the ground
extensive site development will increase this number
How do you control construction runoff?
Construct a silt fence (a temporary fence designed to allow water to pass through while filtering out sediment and allowing the
sediment to settle)
If runoff is greater than the capacity of the natural or artificial drainage, holding ponds must be constructed to temporarily collect site runoff
How is soil classified?
Gravel: particles over 2 mm in diameter
Sand: particles from 0.05 mm to 2 mm in diameter; the finest grains just visible to the eye
Silt: particles from 0.002 mm to 0.05 mm in diameter; the grains are invisible but can be felt as smooth
Clay: particles under 0.002 mm in diameter; smooth and floury when dry, plastic and sticky when wet
What are gravels nd sands good and bad for?
excellent for construction loads, drainage, and sewage drain fields
unsuitable for landscaping
When is silt stable vs unstable?
is stable when dry or damp but unstable when wet
Generally must extend foundations and road bases below
What happens when clay gets wet?
expands when wet and is subject to slippage
Poor for foundations unless kept dry
Poor for landscaping and unsuitable for sewage drain fields (retains water and drains slowly)
What are peat and other organic materials good and bad for?
excellent for landscaping but unsuitable for building foundations and road bases
Usually removed from site and replaced with sand and gravels for foundations and road
What is Electromagnetic Distance Measurement?
EDM
- Laser-based instrument with an onboard computer to measure the distance, horizontal angle, and vertical angle of a laser beam to a reflective prism target
- Need two people to operate
- Accurate to 1/64” at 1600 ft
- can include:
- Rectified photography
- Orthophotography
- Photogrammetry
- Laser scanning
What is rectified photography?
- Uses a digital camera to photograph facades
- Focal plane is set parallel to the façade and gives no perspective distortion
- Measured points are used to remove distortion and scale the image
- Dimensions can then be scaled off the photo
- Makes it possible to scale elements not readily accessible for hand measuring
What is orthophotography?
Similar to rectified photography, but uses digital photography and computer software to correct for optical distortion
What is Photogrammetry?
Photogrammetry
The surveying of objects or spaces through the use of photography and associated software
Stereophotogrammetry:
Uses two overlapping photos in a computer program to produce a digital stereo image
Stereo image can be used to make an accurate 3D drawing
Requires specialized equipment and training
Convergent Photogrammetry:
Uses multiple photographic images of an object taken at different angles
Measurements and 3D models are derived with the use of software that traces the overlapping photographs
Reference points must be established for the software to scale off
Slower than laser scanning but less expensive
Accuracy of about 0.05%
What is laser scanning?
Uses medium-range pulsing laser beams that systemically sweep over an object or space to obtain three-dimensional
coordinates of points on the surface being scanned
Creates a “point cloud” that forms a 3D image
From the 3D the computer software can create plans, elevations, sections, and 3D models
No surveyed reference points are needed
Accuracy ranging from 0.05% to 0.01% (or better)
What are applicable regulations to reference on existing buildings?
Building codes
Zoning restrictions
Easements
Deed restrictions
Covenants
Historic preservation rules
Energy conservation codes
Local agency regulations
What are the four levels of historic preservation (from most stringent to least)?
Preservation
Rehabilitation
Restoration
Reconstruction
What does preservation entail?
Attempts to retain all historic fabric through conservation, maintenance, and repair
What does rehabilitation entail?
Emphasizes the retention and repair of historic materials, but gives more latitude to replacement, typically because the property is more deteriorated before work begins
What does restoration entail?
Focuses on the retention of materials from the most significant time in a property’s history, while permitting the removal of materials from other periods
What does reconstruction entail?
The least historically accurate approach
Allows the opportunity to re-create a non-surviving site, landscape, building, structure, or object in new materials
What are 4 major considerations during programming?
Function
Relates to the people and activities within the space or building and their relationships
Form
Relates to the site, the physical and psychological environment of the building, and the quality of construction
Economy
Concerns money: the initial costs, operating costs, and life-cycle costs
Time
Concerns the past, present, and future as they affect the other three considerations
What does net area include?
Net Area - does not include space for general circulation, mechanical rooms, stairways, elevator and mechanical shafts, electrical rooms, wall and structural thickness, etc.
Also referred to as Net Assignable Area
Secondary spaces would be Nonassignable Areas (or unassigned/unassignable areas)
What is Gross Building Area
Net Area + Unassigned Area = Gross Building Area
How do you get an efficiency ratio?
Ratio of net area to gross area is efficiency
Also called efficiency ratio or net-to-gross ratio
Often range from 60% to 80%
What is BOMA?
Building Owners and Managers Association International (BOMA International)
How does BOMA measure occupant area for leased spaces?
BOMA measures the occupant area to the inside, finished surfaces of multi-occupant
corridor partitions and to the centerlines if demising partitions (partitions separating adjacent tenant spaces)
How do you measure occupant area of leased spaces at an exterior wall?
For measurements taken at an exterior wall:
If 50% or more of the area of the external wall is glass, the occupant area is measured to the inside face of the glass
Otherwise, the occupant area is measured to the inside face of the exterior wall
What is the pro forma budget method?
Used for speculative or for-profit projects
Lists the expected income the project will generate as well as the expected costs to build the project
Selling or renting price per SF is calculated
What are some project cost items?
Construction cost
Site acquisition
Site development
Fees
Financing
Building Cost
The money needed to construct the building (including structure, exterior cladding, finishes, electrical/mechanical
systems, contractor’s overhead and profit)
Site Development Costs
(Parking, drives, fences, landscaping, exterior lighting, irrigation systems)
Furniture, Fixtures, and Equipment (FF&E)
(Architectural and engineering fees, as well as costs for topographic surveys, soil tests, special consultants, appraisals,
and legal consultation)
Inflation
Contingency (often 5-10%)
Financing
Debt Service
(Not included in the project budget because it is an ongoing cost to the owner)
Moving
What are three basic methods of budgeting during programming and schematic design?
Project Comparison Method
Area Method (Square Foot or Volume Method)
Assembly Method (System Method)
What is the Project Comparison Method?
Cost of the new project is estimated using the costs of past projects of similar scope and function
Typically accurate within 15-25%
Three budgets are usually developed: low, midrange, high
What is Area Method?
also called Square-Foot Method or Volume Method
Usually prepared when preliminary design is complete and the architect has a fairly good idea of the size of the
project, its function, and general level of quality or complexity
Average cost per unit of area or volume is used
Type and extent of site development needed are also known
Typically accurate within 5-15%
What is the Assembly or System Method?
Used more during the schematic phase
Budgeting based on major subsystems
Values found for low, average, and high quality construction can be found from costs databases and
published estimating manuals
Typically about 10% accurate
What three things are land value most influenced by?
Location, local market conditions, potential for generating profit
What does it mean for land to be underdeveloped?
land that is not used to its “highest and best use” (what will yield the highest return on investment)
What are three basic ways that land value is calculated?
Market Approach
- What did similar properties in the surrounding neighborhood/region sell for/are listed for?
Income Approach
- Value of the land is calculated based on the potential the property has to yield a profit
- Potential gross income is estimated and expenses are deducted
Cost Approach
- Value of the land is estimated at its highest and best use
- Cost to replace the building or add improvements is calculated
- Estimated accrued depreciation is figured and subtracted from the replacement cost/improvement cost
- The adjusted amount is then added to the land value to give the total value of the property
What does a special sales tax entail?
Any tax that is imposed for a specific purpose or by a single-purpose authority
Requires a majority vote of the people of the district
What is a general obligation bond?
Issues by a city or state and backed by general tax revenue and the issuer’s credit
Typically used to finance the acquisition or construction of specific public capital facilities (schools, museums,
libraries), and to purchase real property
Jurisdiction issuing the bond has the authority to levy a property tax to repay the bond, usually over 10-30 years
Requires majority vote of the people
What is a revenue bond?
Revenue Bonds or Rate-Supported Bonds
Similar to general obligation bonds
Revenue bonds are backed by the revenue that will come from customers who use the services that the bonds
funded
What is a public enterprise revenue bond?
Public Enterprise Revenue Bonds
Bonds issued by cities or counties to finance facilities for revenue producing public enterprises
Bonds are paid off from revenues generated by the facilities through the charges they impose
Airports, parking garages, hospitals
What is Tax Increment financing?
Tax-Increment Financing
Used by a city to pay for improvements that will encourage private development in an area generate increased
taxes due to increased property values
City creates a special district and makes public improvements within that district
Dose not require a vote by the people in the district
What are development impact fees?
Development Impact Fees
Imposed on developers in order to pay for the improvements to off-site infrastructure (roads, utilities, fire and police
departments) that the new development makes necessary
Exactions - hookup fees for utility service
Controversial - where does the money go?
What are subdivision exactions?
Similar to development fees in that they put a burden on the development, but subdivision exactions are not used to
fund construction
Requirements that developers either dedicate some land for public use or contribute cash for the purchase of land
and facilities by local governments
What are special district assessments?
Used to fund public space improvements (parks and streetscapes)
Increases and area’s appeal, and therefore property values
A special tax district is established that encompasses the properties that will benefit from the proposed
improvements
Majority of property owners in the area must agree
Not intended to encourage private development
What is a mortgage loan?
Used to purchase property
Borrower grants the lender a lien on the property until the loan is repaid
Most common way people purchase home
What is a blanket loan?
Often used to fund the purchase of a large piece of real estate that the borrower intends to subdivide and resell as
smaller parcels
What is a bond?
A type of debt security issued by a government entity to raise money for a construction project
Issuer of the bond receives money from the buyer, and in exchange the issuer promises to repay the principal with
interest on a later date
Typically sold to individual investors and investment companies
What is a bridge loan?
A short-term loan used to purchase property or finance a project quickly, before long-term financing can be arranged
What is a construction loan?
Used to finance the building of a project and is in effect only for the duration of construction
Once construction is complete, the loan must be converted into a long-term, permanent loan
What is a hard money loan?
A relatively short-term loan used when there is a distressed financial situation such as foreclosure, bankruptcy, or
nonpayment of a previous loan
Based on the quick-sale value (usually significantly less than market value) of an asset such as a parcel of land or
other real estate
High interest rates
What is a mezzanine loan?
Secured by collateral in the stock of the development company rather than in the developed property
In the event of default, the lender can seize the assets of the borrower more quickly than with a standard mortgage
loan
Often used by developers for large projects
What is a pro forma statement?
Statement or model of all the expected expenses (both initial and long term) of developing a project, compared to
the expected income and increase in value of the project
Created by the developer in order to determine whether a project is likely to be financially successful
What are the phases of design bid build?
Schematic Design
Design Development
Construction Document Production
Bidding (or Negotiation)
Construction Administration
What factors affect construction time?
Size and complexity
Contractor’s ability to manage both their own forces and subcontractors
Material delivery times
Quality and completeness of the architect’s drawings and specs
Weather
Labor availability and labor disputes
New construction vs remodeling
Site conditions
Architect’s construction administration process and skill
Lender approvals
Agency and governmental approvals
Are wood structural systems mostly one way or two way?
one way
What are wood joists?
Light, closely spaced members that span between beams or bearing walls and support floors or ceilings
Typical sizes are 2x6, 2x8, 2x10, 2x12
Typical spacing is 12in, 16in, 24in on center
Typical max span is about 20 ft, could be up to 25 ft
What affect does sheathing have on joists?
Sheathing spans the top of the joists and prevents twisting or lateral displacement
What is plank and beam framing?
4in or 6in nominal width
Span between girders or bearing walls
Spacing of 4, 6, or 8 ft
Wood decking on top
Max span is 10 ft to 20 ft
What is glue laminated construction?
Structural members made up of individual pieces of lumber 3/4in or 1-1/2in thick, glued together in the factory
Standard widths are 3-1/8in, 5-1/8in, 6-3/4in, and 8-3/4in
Typical spans are 15 ft to 60 ft
One advantage is their appearance - they are often left exposed
What are Lightweight I Shaped Joists?
Consists of a top and bottom chord of solid or laminated construction separated by a plywood or oriented strand
board web
Used in residential and light commercial construction
Stronger and stiffer than standard wood joist, with far fewer defects
What is a wood truss?
Wood members connected with metal plates
Spans range from 24 ft to 40 ft
Depths from 12 in to 36 in
Commonly spaced 24 in on center
Used in residential and light commercial
Allow easy passage of mechanical ductwork through the truss web
What is a box beam?
Fabricated with plywood panels glued and nailed to solid wood members, usually 2x4
Often used in locations where the depth of the member is not critical and where other types of manufactured beams
cannot be brought to the building
What are stressed skin panels?
Used for floor, roof, or wall construction?
What is a steel beam and girder system?
Large members span between vertical supports, and smaller beams are framed into them
Girders span shorter distance
Beams span longer distance
Typical spans are from 25 ft to 40 ft
Beams spaced about 8 ft to 10 ft on center
Framing covered with steel decking that spans between the beams
Concrete topping over the decking
What is an open web steel joist system?
Span between beams or bearing walls
Can span up to 60 ft (standard)
Up to 96 ft (long-span)
Up to 144 ft (deep long-span)
Depths of standard members range from 8 in to 30 in, in 2 in increments
Long-span joists range from 18 in to 72 in
Floor joists are typically 2 ft to 4 ft on center
Roof joists are typically 4 ft to 6 ft on center
Usually used with steel decking and a concrete topper
Well-suited for low rise construction where the overall depth of the floor/ceiling is not critical
What is cast in place concrete?
Requires formwork and generally takes longer to build than precast buildings
Can conform to an almost unlimited variety of shapes, sizes, design intentions, and structural requirements
May use mild steel reinforcing, could also be post-tensioned
Two types: one way and two way
What is a one way cast in place concrete system?
Slabs and beams transfer loads in one direction only
Beam-and Girder System
Typical spans 15 ft to 30 ft
Economical
Easy to form
Concrete Joist System
Concrete members spaced 24 in or 36 in apart, running in one direction, that frame into larger beams
Spans range from 20 ft to 30 ft
Depths from 12 in to 24 in
Good for light to medium loads with moderate span
What is a two way cast in place concrete system?
Flat Plate
Simplest
Designed and reinforced to span in both directions directly into the columns
System is limited to light loads and short spans to prevent punch through
Spans up to 25 ft
Depths from 6 in to 12 in
Useful where floor-to-floor height must be kept to a minimum
Flat Slab
Like a flat plate but has a drop panel (increased slab thickness around the columns) to provide greater
resistance to punching
Can support heavier loads
Spans up to 30 ft
Waffle Slab
Heavier loads at slightly longer spans
Spans up to 40 ft
Waffles often left exposed
What is precast concrete?
Better quality control
Erection is quick
Usually prestressed
Single Tee and Double Tee are popular
A 2 in topping slab is usually poured over the members to provide a uniform, smooth floor finish
Unloaded beams have a built in camber due to the tensioned steel
Once loaded to camber disappears or is reduced
Post-Tensioned Concrete
- Stressed after the concrete has been poured and cured
- Useful where high strength is required and where it may be too difficult to transport precast members to the job site
How is masonry used structurally?
Generally limited to bearing walls
High compressive strength
Weak in tension and bendingHorizontal joint reinforcement generally 16 in on center
Vertical reinforcement is accomplished with standard rebar sized and spaced in accordance with the structural
requirements
Horizontal bars are also used and tied to the vertical bars, and the entire assembly is set in a grouted cavity space
What are the three basic types of masonry bearing wall construction?
Single Wythe
Double Wythe
Cavity
What are three things that the thickness of a masonry bearing wall determines?
Slenderness Ratio
The ratio of the wall’s unsupported height to its thickness and is an indication of the ability of the wall to resist buckling when a compressive load is applied from above.
Flexural Strength
Important when the wall is subjected to lateral forces such as from wind
Fire-Resistance Rating
Depends on both the wall’s material and its thickness
What is composite construction?
Any structural system consisting of two or materials designed to act together to resist loads
Reinforced concrete construction
Composite steel deck and concrete
Concrete slab and beam systems
Open-web steel joists with wood chords
How do steel, concrete, and wood deflect and deform over time?
Steel does not have many problems
Concrete structures are prone to creep
Wood structures deform over time due to shrinkage of the wood and long-term deflection
What are three things to consider with the wall and building enveope?
Weight of the envelope, exterior loads (wind), allow for expansion and contraction due to temperature change and slight movements in the frame
What is a truss?
Structures comprised of straight members forming a number of triangles with the connections arranged so that the
stresses in the members are either in tension or compression
Can be used horizontally, vertically, or diagonally
Can be field-fabricated or assembled in the factory
What is an arch?
May have fixed or hinged supports (usually hinged because it allows arch to remain flexible and avoids high bending stresses)
Can be constructed of any material
Spans:
- 50 ft to 240 ft for wood
- 20 ft to 320 ft for concrete
- 50 ft to 500 ft for steel
What is a rigid frame?
Vertical and horizontal members work as a single structural unit
All three members resist vertical and lateral loads together rather than singly
Attachment of columns to foundation may be rigid or hinged
Single-story rigid frames could be gabled frames
What is a space frame?
A structural system consisting of trusses in two directions rigidly connected at their intersections
Most common type is a triangulated space frame (bottom chord is offset from the top by half a bay, and each is connected with inclined web members)
Efficient structures for enclosing large rectangular areas
Spans up to 350 ft
Span-to-depth ratios of space frames may be from 20:1 to 30:1
Light weight and repetitive members - fabrication and erection time is reduced
Structural design is complex
What is a folded plate?
A structure in which the loads are carried in two different directions
- In the transverse direction through each plate supported by adjacent plates
- In the longitudinal direction with each plate acting as a girder spanning between vertical supports
Usually constructed of reinforced concrete from 3 in to 6 in thick
- Could also be made of wood or steel
Typical longitudinal spans are 30 ft to 100 ft (longer is possible with reinforced concrete)
What are thin shell structures?
A structure with a curved surface that resists loads through tension, compression, and shear in the plane of the shell only
Theoretically, no bending or moment stresses (makes a thick structure unnecessary - hence the name)
Almost always reinforced concrete, 3 in to 6 in thick
Can be domes, parabolas, or barrel vaults, or more complicated saddle-shaped hyperbolic paraboloids
Domes can span from 40 ft to over 200 ft
Hyperbolic paraboloids can space from 30 ft to 160 ft
What are stressed skin structures?
Comprised of panels made of a sheathing material attached on one or both sides of intermediate web members in such a
way that the panel acts as a series of I-beams, with the sheathing being the flange and the intermediate members being the webs
Typically made of wood
Typically span 12 ft to 35 ft
What are suspension structures?
Most commonly seen in suspension bridges, also used in large stadiums with suspended roofs
Similar to arches, in that the loads they support must be resisted by both vertical reactions and horizontal thrust reactions
Difference is that the vertical reactions are up and the horizontal thrust reactions are outward
Can only resist loads in tension
Instable in wind
Must be stabilized or stiffened with a heavy infill material, with cables attached to the ground or with a secondary grid
of cables either above or below the primary set
What are inflatable structures?
Similar to suspension structures in that they can only resist loads in tension
Held in place with constant air pressure that is greater than the outside air pressure
Simplest inflatable structure is a single membrane anchored continuously at ground level and inflated
Double-Skin Inflatable Structure
Structure is created by the inflation of a series of voids, like an air mattress
No need for an air lock for entry/exit
Unstable in the wind
Used for temporary enclosures and for large, single-space buildings such as sports arenas
What is the dead load?
the self weight of a structure
What are live loads?
Wind
Snow
Earthquakes
People
Furniture
Equipment
How many sf is one acre?
43,560 sf
What are greenfields, brownfields, and grey fields? Which would be best to build on?
Greenfield is virgin land.
Brown field a former industrial or commercial site where future use is affected by real or perceived environmental contamination.
Greyfield land is economically obsolescent, outdated, failing, moribund or underused real estate assets or land.
What are three things that lead to the growth of suburbs
Development of rail networks
Population growth after WWII
Demand for more space and light
What are three changes in cities that were caused by the industrial revolution?
Over-crowding
Reduction of open and recreational spaces
Emphasis on production in factory towns
Why were early settlements walled in or otherwise situated for protection?
early on, civilizations learned that constructing walls could deter nomadic tribes and neighboring villages from attacking them.
In a building site located in a cold climate, it is usually advisable to locate the main entrance facing which direction?
south
What can be inferred about a property when an occupancy permit (certificate of occupancy) has been issued for it?
The property is built according to applicable codes and that it is suitable to be occupied
List three aspects of new urbanism:
Reduced dependence of automobiles
Walkable pedestrian friendly streets
Mixed-use neighborhoods with civic, institutional and educational buildings
What are three reasons for the formulation and enactment of the first building codes and regulations in the United States?
Overcrowding in cities
Spread of diseases in cities
Threat of fires
A residential design in a cold climate can reduce heat loss by which of the following strategies?
A residential design in a cold climate can reduce heat loss by being “compact shapes that reduce overall exposed surface area”.
As a general rule, how far apart should same-direction curves in roads be at the very minimum?
200 feet
According to Kevin Lynch’s The Image of the City, how are landmarks defined?
Strategic centers of interest that people cannot enter and view from the exterior
What is the range of the maximum grade in most streets?
between 3%-10%.
What is meant by the term ‘slenderness ratio’ with regards to a wall?
The ratio of the unsupported height of a wall to its thickness is the slenderness ratio of a wall.
What is the essential objective of CPTED?
“Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) is defined as a multi-disciplinary approach to deterring criminal behaviour through environmental design.
What is at the center of a city which is built in a star pattern?
At the center of a city built in a star pattern is an urban core, often a central plaza.
What are four causes of differential settlement?
Frost heave
Soil type
Varying foundation depths
Water leaks
What is the advantage of using a hinged arch?
Remains flexible and can resist higher bending stresses
What are four public utilities?
A public utility is defined as, “an organization supplying a community with electricity, gas, water, or sewerage.”
What are sociofugal arrangement of space? And an example?
Sociofugal arrangements are those where social interaction is discouraged. These arrangements promote seclusion by having seating facing outwards.
ex. a row of seats in a bus stop
What are two drawbacks of the superblock concept?
Reduced social interaction due to our automobile-centered culture
Driveways and car parks were busier than normal
What are three components of the star shaped city model?
Bastions, gate, moat, plaza, radial streets
If a new zoning ordinance is applied to an existing development, pre-existing properties that do not conform to the new standards are allowed to remain if ___________.
The property owner continues to use the property in its original fashion
“grandfathered in”
Circular road systems allow commuters to travel around a city to surrounding urban centers without traveling across large city centers. These are commonly found in which pattern of urban development?
satellite pattern
In existing construction, which areas are the 3 most likely places where lead might be a concern?
existing paint, drinking water, or existing pipes or plumbing
What is a microclimate?
refers to the overall climate of the region and is reflected in the weather data available from the National Weather Service
How many townships are located in a 24 mi square created by intersecting meridians and parallels?
16
Is the IBC prescriptive or performance based?
prescriptive
What defines a city with a field pattern of development?
an amorphous city with no focus and no scheme of organization
What is BOCA?
Building Officials & Code Administrators
BOCA is a legacy code that has been merged into the IBC but still comes up in standard practice. BOCA stands for the Building Officials and Code Administrators.
What is an access aisle?
An accessible pedestrian space adjacent to or between parking spaces that provides clearances in compliance with building and/or accessibility code.
ASTM test E119 is designed to test what properties?
The ability of a material to halt the spread of fire, heat and hot gases for a set period of time
A homeowner wants to buy a new house and move in before selling the their current home. Which short-term financing method would be appropriate for this?
A Bridge loan
Which urban planner introduced the concept of zoning?
Tony Garnier
Which city’s gridiron street system established in 1682, became the precedent for grid systems planned during the settlement of the American West?
Philadelphia
A building in a temperate climate would benefit from which 3 climate control features?
Night time ventilation for hot air
Medium-dark colors for the building’s exterior
Orientation of the building towards the south
What is a programmatic concept?
an abstract solution to client’s problems
What are 3 characteristics of the superblock
Encourages pedestrian circulation and park development within the block
Limited vehicular access
Outgrowth of the new town concept
What technology is most common in groundwater remediation?
Extraction/treatment (or pump and treat)
What is considered the ideal range of temperature and humidity to establish human comfort?
Winter: 62-72° Summer: 65-75° Relative Humidity: 30-60%
What is an example for ‘abatement’ of a property?
A reduction of the selling price of a house due to a visible crack on a non-load bearing wall
How many inches is 1 mil?
Equal to 0.001 inches, it is normally referred to as, a thousandth, or a mil. Different types of barriers and membranes are measured in mils.
What are four things that zoning regulates?
What a plot of land can be used for
Setbacks of the building from other properties
Building size
Floor area ratio
A community designed with sustainability in mind would be most likely to benefit from what kind of traffic system?
The curvilinear traffic pattern would be best to use for a sustainably focused community. This is because a curvilinear system conforms to the topography of the land which minimizes alterations to what is existing.
When might a developer petition for a variance?
when designing a project to conform to the zoning ordinance would create undue financial hardship on an Owner
What is a model building code?
set of regulations on buildings written by an independent group of experts without reference to a specific geographic location
What is albedo?
Albedo is a measure of how much light hits a surface and is reflected without being absorbed. Something that appears white reflects most of the light that hits it and has a high albedo, while something that looks dark absorbs most of the light that hits it, indicating a low albedo
What is the minimum height of a guardrail?
42”
What advantageous property of brick makes it suitable for use in passive solar energy applications?
high thermal mass
What is the max height that a stair can extend before requiring a landing?
12’
In his 1972 book Defensible Space, Oscar Newman proposed which of the following basic concepts?
Surveillance, territoriality, real and symbolic barriers
Once a product is successfully tested in a Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory (NTRL), what type of labels will it have?
Listed label and Classified label
What is the typical gross building area required for mechanical spaces in percentage?
9%
When calculating FAR, do you use the lot size or setback size?
lot size
How many sf could you assume for a water closet serving one person?
50 sf
In what two climates is minimizing total surface area a good design strategy?
hot arid and cold
In what two climates would utilizing a long narrow floor plan oriented east-west make sense?
hot humid and temperate
What climate would you use clerestory windows in and why?
temperate climate to allow for the venting of warm air built up throughout the day
What is hydrostatic pressure?
Hydrostatic pressure occurs when the water build-up pressure around the foundation exceeds that of the concrete or block foundation wall leading to water infiltration into below grade spaces.
What can bentonite clay be used for?
Bentonite clay is material specifically designed to prevent infiltration due to hydrostatic pressure. It has self-healing capability to ensure protection under pressure.
At what PSI is concrete thought to be waterproof?
4400 psi
To what PSI are more concrete foundations designed to?
3000 psi
According to Kevin Lynch’s ‘Image of the City”, what is a district?
a district is a two-dimensional area perceived as having some character that distinguishes it from
surrounding city
According to Kevin Lynch’s ‘Image of the City”, what is a node?
is a focal point or a center of interest that people can enter
could be an intersection of two roads, or it could be a public square that people can enter inside of a district
According to Kevin Lynch’s ‘Image of the City”, what is a landmark?
a point of interest that cannot be entered
What is a PUD?
A PUD (Planned-Unit-Development) is a large parcel of land designed to have mixed uses
with a variety of sizes and densities
The standards for PUD’s include
permitted uses, FAR’s, amount of open space, and parking requirements. They make more efficient uses of the land by growing
setback regulations of zoning ordinances by putting similarly grouped occupancies together
What is the max slope for a parking lot?
5%
At what percent does a plan become a ramp?
5% or 1:20
under that, its a walkway
What slope is the max allowed for outdoor recreational activity?
3%
What is measured by a room corner test?
the contribution of textile room coverings to the growth of a fire
List three standard writing organizations/
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
ASTM International
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
What does ALTA stand for?
“The American Land Title Association (ALTA), founded in 1907, is the national trade association and voice of the abstract and title insurance industry. ALTA members search, review and insure land titles to protect home buyers and mortgage lenders who invest in real estate.
Depending on weather conditions and design speeds, streets should not have more than a(n) ___ grade.
10%
What can be done to gauge the condition and composition of an existing roof?
Core drilling and infra-red testing can be carried out to gauge the condition and composition of an existing roof.
When are reinforced concrete or masonry retaining walls usually necessary?
the height of the wall is over 4ft
What is the relationship between arterial, collector, and local streets?
local streets are intended to give direct access to building sites and are often curvilinear
collector streets connect local and arterial
How many sf do you use per car and per car plus access and drives?
300sf
400sf
What are some aspects of the “ideal” structural parti for seismic design?
Uniform loading of structural elements (stress connections from non-uniform loading– for instance, cantilevers– are weak points in an earthquake)
Low, wide buildings (prevents overturning)
Equal floor heights (means fewer stress connections)
Symmetrical plan shape (minimizes torsion/twisting)
Shear walls or bracing at the perimeter (more efficient at resisting torsion/twisting than shear walls in the core)
Short spans (less stress on members and more columns provide redundancy if some are lost in an earthquake)
Minimize openings in floors and roofs (more efficient diaphragms)
Extend shear walls continuously from roof to foundation
What shapes of building should you avoid in seismic zones?
cantilevers, irregularly-shaped buildings, re-entrant corners (L- or T- shaped plans)
What is the Steepest slope for planted areas?
2:1
What is the maximum slope before accessible ramps are required?
5%
