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GCSE BIOLOGY > P2- Inheritance, variation and evolution > Flashcards

P2- Inheritance, variation and evolution Flashcards

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1
Q

2 types of reproduction

A

Sexual
Asexual

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2
Q

What is sexual reproduction?

A

Where genetic information from two organisms (mother and father) are combined to produce offspring which are genetically identical to either parent.

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3
Q

How many parents are there in sexual reproduction?

A

2

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4
Q

What do the mother and father produce in sexual reproduction?

A

Gametes (by meiosis)

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5
Q

What does each gamete contain in humans?

A

23 chromosomes

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6
Q

What do the egg and sperm cells do in sexual reproduction?

A

Fuse together/ Fertilise to form a cell with the full number of chromosomes (half from mother and half from father)

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7
Q

Why do the offspring of sexual reproduction contain a mixture of their parents’ genes?

A

Because there are TWO parents

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8
Q

What does a mixture of genetic information produce?

A

A variation in the offspring

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9
Q

What is asexual reproduction?

A

Where there is only one parent therefore the offspring are genetically identical to that parent

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10
Q

How many parents does asexual reproduction involve?

A

1

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11
Q

What process does asexual reproduction happen by?

A

Mitosis (ordinary cell divides)

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12
Q

What are the new cells created by asexual reproduction to their parent?

A

Clones

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13
Q

What is produced by meiosis?

A

Gametes

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14
Q

What is meiosis?

A

A process involving 2 cell divisions to make gametes which only have half the original number of chromosomes

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15
Q

Where is the only place meiosis happens in humans?

A

The reproductive organs (ovaries or testes)

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16
Q

How many cell divisions happen in meiosis?

A

2

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17
Q

Meiosis step by step

A

1) Before the cell divides, its genetic information is copied, to form 2 armed chromosomes
2) Chromosomes arrange themselves in pairs
3) 1st division= chromosome pairs line up in the centre of the cell
4) Pairs are pulled apart so each new cell only has 1 copy of each chromosome (some of mother, some of father)
5) 2nd division= chromosomes line up in centre again and arms are pulled apart
6) 4 gametes created with only a single set of chromosomes (each gamete is genetically different)

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18
Q

4 advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual

A

1) Offspring have a mix of 2 sets of chromosomes. Inherit genes from both parents to produce variation

2) Variation increases chances of surviving a change in environment (survival advantage)

3) More likely to breed successfully and pass genes on as their characteristics give them a better chance of survival (natural selection)

4) Can use selective breeding to speed up natural selection allowing us to produce animals with the desired characteristics. Means food production can increase

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19
Q

4 advantages of asexual reproduction over sexual

A

1) Only needs one parent
2) Therefore uses less energy as organisms don’t need to find a mate
3) Asexual is faster than sexual
4) Many identical offspring can be produced in favourable conditions

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20
Q

Can some organisms reproduce both sexually and asexually?

A

Yes

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21
Q

3 examples of organisms that can reproduce both sexually and asexually?

A

1) Malarial parasites
2) Fungi
3) Plants

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22
Q

How do malarial parasites reproduce sexually?

A

After the mosquito carrying a parasite bites a human, the parasite can be transferred to the human. The parasite produces sexually when its in the MOSQUITO.

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23
Q

How do malarial parasites reproduce asexually?

A

After the mosquito carrying a parasite bites a human, the parasite can be transferred to the human. The parasite produces asexually when its in the HUMAN HOST.

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24
Q

How does fungi reproduce sexually?

A

Fungi can release spores. Sexually-produced spores introduce variation and are often produced in response to an unfavourable change in environment, increasing the chance that the population will survive the change.

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25
Q

How does fungi reproduce asexually?

A

Fungi can release spores. Asexually-produced spores form fungi that are genetically identical to the parent fungus

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26
Q

How do plants reproduce sexually?

A

Many plants produce seeds sexually

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27
Q

How do plants reproduce asexually?

A

By runners such as strawberry plants, or bulb division such as daffodils.

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28
Q

What does DNA stand for?

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid

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29
Q

What is DNA?

A

-The chemical that all of the genetic material in a cell is made up from
-Contains coded information
-Found in chromosomes (in the nucleus)
-It is a polymer

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30
Q

What does your DNA determine?

A

The inherited characteristics you have

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31
Q

What is a genome?

A

The entire genetic information of an organism

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32
Q

3 reasons why it is important to understand the human genome?

A

1) Allows scientists to identify genes in the genome that link to different types of diseases

2) Knowing what genes link to inherited diseases could help develop effective treatments for them

3) Scientists can look at them to trace the migration of certain populations around the world

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33
Q

What do DNA molecules contain?

A

A genetic code that determines which proteins are built

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34
Q

What is the monomer of DNA called?

A

Nucleotides

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35
Q

What are DNA strands?

A

Polymers made up of lots of repeating units called nucleotides

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36
Q

What does each nucleotide consist of? What shapes are each one?

A
  • A sugar (pentagon)
    -A phosphate group (circle)
    -A base (square)
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37
Q

What are the 4 different bases of DNA?

A

A, T, C, G

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38
Q

What do the 4 different bases of DNA attach to?

A

One of the 4 different bases joins to each sugar

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39
Q

What does base A always pair up with?

A

T

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40
Q

What does base C always pair up with?

A

G

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41
Q

What is complementary base pairing?

A

When A always pairs with T, and C always pairs with G

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42
Q

What does the order of bases in a gene decide?

A

The order of amino acids in a protein

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43
Q

What is each amino acid coded for by?

A

A sequence of 3 bases in the gene

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44
Q

What is proteinsynthesis?

A

Protein synthesis consists of two stages – transcription and translation. In transcription the DNA code is read, and in translation the code is used to build up protein molecules.

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45
Q

What do the non-coding parts of DNA control?

A

They control whether or not a gene is expressed

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46
Q

How do ribosomes make proteins?

A

They use the code in the DNA

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47
Q

How is mRNA made?

A

Copying the code from DNA

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48
Q

What does the molecule mRNA help do?

A

Acts as a messenger between the DNA and the ribosomes and carries the code between the two

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49
Q

What happens after a chain of amino acids has been assembled?

A

It folds into a unique shape which allows the protein to perform the task its meant to do

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50
Q

3 examples of types of proteins

A

1) Enymes
2) Hormones
3) Structural proteins

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51
Q

What are mutations in DNA?

A

A random change in an organisms DNA.

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52
Q

How often do mutations occur?

A

Continously

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53
Q

What do mutations change?

A

The sequence of the DNA bases in a gene to produce a genetic variant.

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54
Q

Do most mutations have a big effect on the protein?

A

No

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55
Q

How can a mutation seriously affect a protein? What might happen as a result?

A

Sometimes, the mutation will code for an altered protein with a change in its shape. This could affect its ability to perform its function

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56
Q

What can happen if there is a mutation in the non-coding DNA?

A

It can alter how genes are expressed

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57
Q

What is the definition of gametes?

A

Sex cells (sperm and egg cells)

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58
Q

What is the definition of chromosomes?

A

Structures in a cell that contain genetic material, also known as DNA

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59
Q

What is the definition of gene?

A

Small sections of a chromosomes that codes for a protein

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60
Q

What is the definition of allele?

A

Different forms of the same gene (e.g AA/Aa/aa)

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61
Q

What is the definition of dominant?

A

Always expressed, even if only one copy is present

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62
Q

What is the definition of recessive?

A

Only expressed if two copies are present

63
Q

What is the definition of homozygous?

A

Same alleles

64
Q

What is the definition of heterozygous?

A

Different alleles

65
Q

What is the definition of phenotype?

A

Physical characteristics

66
Q

What is the definition of genotype?

A

Genetic information

67
Q

Examples of characteristics controlled by a single gene

A

Red/Green colour blindness
Mouse fur colour

68
Q

2 examples of inherited disorders

A

Cystic Fibrosis
Polydactyly

69
Q

What allele is cystic fibrosis caused by?

A

Recessive

70
Q

What is cystic fibrosis?

A

A genetic disorder of the cell membranes causing thick sticky mucus in the lungs and pancreas

71
Q

What allele is polydactyly caused by?

A

Dominant

72
Q

What is polydactyly?

A

A genetic disorder where a baby is born with extra fingers or toes

73
Q

3 reasons for embryonic screening

A

1) Help to stop people suffering
2) Treating the disorders costs the govt and taxpayers a lot of money
3) There are laws that stop it going too far e.g parents cannot select the sex of their baby

74
Q

3 reasons against embryonic screening

A

1) Implies that people with genetic problems are ‘undesirable’
2) May come to a point where everyone wants to screen their embryos for the most desirable
3) Screening is expensive

75
Q

What are the female sex chromosomes?

A

XX

76
Q

What are the male sex chromosomes?

A

XY

77
Q

What are species?

A

A group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of breeding with one another to produce fertile offspring

78
Q

What is variation?

A

The differences within a species

79
Q

What are the 2 types of variation?

A

Genetic
Environmental

80
Q

What is genetic variation?

A

The combination of genes an offspring gets from their 2 parents

81
Q

Can characteristics be determined by both genetic and environmental variation?

A

Yes

82
Q

What is environmental variation?

A

The environment (including the conditions an organism lives and grows in) can cause differences between members of the same species

83
Q

What does variation arise from?

A

Mutations

84
Q

What did Charles Darwin conclude from his findings (Survival of the Fittest)?

A

Organisms with the most suitable characteristics for their environment would be more successful competitors and would be more likely to survive

85
Q

What is the Theory of Evolution by natural selection?

A

All of today’s species have evolved from simple life forms that first started to develop over 3 billion years ago

86
Q

5 key elements of natural selection (for an exam q)

A

1) Mutation - Genetic variation
2) Application- Say why the mutation is good
3) Survival- Explain why they survive
4) Reproduce
5) Pass on allele/ mutation to their offspring

87
Q

What happens if two populations of one species become so different in phenotype?

A

A completely new species is formed (this is called speciation)

88
Q

What is Selective Breeding?

A

Humans artificially select the plants or animals that are going to breed so that the genes for particular characteristics remain in the population.

89
Q

What is the step by step process of selective breeding?

A

1) Choose parents with the desired characteristics
2) Breed them together
3) Select the best of their offspring and breed them together
4) This continues over many generations so the desirable traits gets stronger and stronger until all have the characteristic

90
Q

4 examples of having the desired characteristic due to selective breeding?

A

1) Animals that produce more meat and milk
2) Crops with disease resistance
3) Domestic dogs with good temperament
4) Large or unusual flowers

91
Q

What is the problem with selective breeding?

A

It reduces the gene pool and therefore can lead to interbreeding. This can cause health problems as there’s more chance of the organisms inheriting harmful genetic defects

92
Q

What is genetic engineering?

A

Transfers a gene that is responsible for a desirable characteristic from one organism’s genome to another so it also has the desired characteristic

93
Q

What is the step by step process of genetic engineering?

A

1) Enzymes are used to isolate the required gene;
2) This gene is inserted into a vector, usually a bacterial plasmid or a virus
3) The vector is used to insert the gene into the required cells
4) Genes are transferred to the cells of animals, plants or microorganisms at an early stage in their development so that they develop with desired characteristics.

94
Q

Why have plant crops been genetically engineered?

A

To be resistant to diseases or to produce bigger better fruits.

95
Q

Why have bacterial cells been genetically engineered?

A

To produce human insulin that can be used to treat diabetes

96
Q

What are the benefits of genetic engineering?

A

It is an exciting area of science which has the potential for solving many problems like treating diseases and for more efficient food production

97
Q

What are the risks of genetic engineering?

A

Changing an organism’s genes might accidentally create unplanned problems which could get passed on to future generations

98
Q

Pros of GM crops?

A

1) The characteristics chosen can increase the yield and make more food
2) They could be engineered to contain the nutrients that people in developing countries are lacking
3) They are already being grown in some places without any problems

99
Q

Cons of GM crops?

A

1) May affect the number of flowers that live in and around crops
2) Not everyone is convinced they are safe and we might not fully understand the effects eating them could have on human health
3) Transplanted genes may get out in the natural environment

100
Q

2 ways plants can be cloned

A

Tissue culture
Cuttings

101
Q

What are cuttings?

A

Gardeners take cuttings from good parent plants and plant them to produce genetically identical copies of the parent plant

102
Q

What is tissue culture?

A

Where a few plant cells are put in a growth medium with hormones and they grow into new plants which are clones of the parent plant

103
Q

What can you use to make animal embryos?

A

Embryo transplants

104
Q

What are embryo transplants? How do they work?

A

Sperm cell taken from a prize bull and egg cell taken from a prize cow. Sperm is then artificially fertilised with an egg. The embryo that develops is split many times to form clones before any cells become specialised.

105
Q

What is adult cell cloning? How does it work?

A

It involves taking an unfertilised egg cell and removing its nucleus. The nucleus is then removed from an adult body cell and is inserted into the ‘empty’ egg cell. This is then stimulated by an electric shock which makes it divide just like a normal embryo

106
Q

Benefits of cloning

A

-Quickly gets you lots of ideal offspring
-Could lead to greater understanding of the development of the embryo
-Help preserve endangered species from going extinct

107
Q

Risks of cloning

A

-Reduced gene pool (new diseases)
-Expensive
-Cloned animals might not be as healthy as normal ones

108
Q

3 reasons why Charles Darwin’s theory from ‘On the Origin of Species’ was controversial

A

1) Went against common religious beliefs about how life on earth developed
2) He couldn’t explain why these new and useful characteristics appeared or how they passed on from individual organisms to their offspring
3) Wasn’t enough evidence to convince many scientists because not many other studies had been done

109
Q

Who was the person that had different ideas to Charles Darwin?

A

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

110
Q

What was Jean-Baptiste Lamarck’s opposing theory to evolution?

A

He argued that changes that an organism acquires during its lifetime will be passed on to its offspring. He thought that if a characteristic was used a lot by an organism , then it would become more developed during its lifetime

111
Q

Why was Lamarck’s hypothesis eventually rejected?

A

Experiments didn’t support his hypothesis. For example if a hamster was dyed pink, its offspring would still be born with brown fur.

112
Q

What is speciation?

A

The development of a new species

113
Q

What 2 factors lead to speciation?

A

Isolation
Mutation

114
Q

What are the 4 stages of forming a new species (speciation)?

A

Isolation
Mutation
Natural selection
Speciation

115
Q

What is isolation?

A

Where populations of a species are separated due to a physical barrier (e.g floods)

116
Q

What is the step by step process which gives rise to new species? (speciation)

A

1) 2 populations of the same species
2) A physical barrier separates the populations
3) Populations adapt to the new environments
4) Development of new species

117
Q

Who was Alfred Russel Wallace? What did he discover?

A

A scientist who worked at the same time as Charles Darwin. He worked on the idea of speciation. He also independently came up with natural selection and published his work together with Darwin.

118
Q

What was the impact of Darwin and Wallace’s work on biology?

A

Wallace’s observations that he made whilst travelling around the world provided lots of evidence to support the theory of evolution by natural selection.

119
Q

What did Gregor Mendel experiment with?

A

He experimented with pea plants

120
Q

What did Gregor Mendel discover?

A

He noted how characteristics in plants were passed on from one generation to the next and his results were published , eventually becoming the foundation of modern genetics

121
Q

What three important conclusions did Mendel reach about herdity in plants?

A

1) Characteristics in plants are determined by ‘‘hereditary units”
2) Hereditary units are passed on to offspring unchanged from both parents, one unit from each parent
3) Hereditary units can be dominant or recessive and if an individual has both for a characteristic, the dominant one will be expressed

122
Q

Why was Mendel’s discovery only recognised after his death?

A

Scientists of the time didn’t have the background knowledge to properly understand his findings as they had no idea about genes, DNA and chromosomes

123
Q

What did scientists become familiar with in the late 1800s?

A

Chromosomes, they were able to observe how they behaved during cell division

124
Q

What did scientists realise and discover about chromosomes and Mendel’s ‘units’?

A

There were striking similarities in the way chromosomes and Mendel’s “units” acted. Based on this, it was proposed that the units were found on chromosomes and now they are known as genes

125
Q

What was determined in the mid 1900s?

A

The structure of DNA was determined which allowed scientists to ind out exactly how genes worked

126
Q

2 pieces of evidence for evolution

A

1) Fossils
2) Antibiotic resistance in bacteria

127
Q

What are fossils?

A

The remains of organisms from many thousands of years ago, which are found in rocks

128
Q

What do fossils provide us with information about?

A

They provide the evidence that organisms lived ages ago. They also tell us a lot about how much or little organisms have evolved over time.

129
Q

What are the 3 ways fossils form in rocks?

A

1) Gradual replacement by minerals
2) From casts and impressions
3) From preservation in places where no decay happens

130
Q

How are fossils found from gradual replacement by minerals?

A

1) Things like teeth and bones which don’t decay easily are eventually replaced by minerals as they decay
2) This forms a rock-like substance shaped like the original hard part
3) The surrounding sediments also turn to rock but the fossil stays distinct inside the rock and eventually someone digs it up

131
Q

How are fossils found from casts and impressions?

A

1) When an organism is buried in a soft material like clay
2) The clay later hardens around it and the organism decays which leaves a cast of itself

132
Q

How are fossils found from preservation in places where no decay happens?

A

1) In amber (clear yellow stone) and tar pits, there’s no oxygen or moisture so decay microbes can’t survive
2) In glaciers, it’s too cold for the decay microbes to work

133
Q

Why is the fossil record incomplete?

A

Many early forms of life were soft-bodied and soft tissue tends to decay away completely

134
Q

How may fossils formed millions of years ago have been destroyed?

A

Geological activity (e.g movement of tectonic plates crushing fossils already formed in the rock)

135
Q

Why do extinctions occur?

A

When there are no remaining individuals of a species still alive.

136
Q

5 factors that contribute to the extinction of species

A

1) The environment changes too quickly
2) A new predator kills them all
3) A new disease kills them all
4) Can’t compete with another species for food
5) A catastrophic event kills them all

137
Q

What can random mutations in bacteria lead to?

A

Changes in bacteria’s characteristics

138
Q

What can changes in bacteria’s characteristics lead to?

A

Antibiotic resistant strains

139
Q

Why can bacteria evolve quite quickly?

A

Bacteria are so rapid at reproducing

140
Q

Who are antibiotic strains a problem to?

A

People who become infected with these bacteria because they aren’t immune to the new strain and there is no effective treatment meaning the infection easily spreads

141
Q

What happens when the resistant bacteria reproduces more?

A

The population size of the antibiotic resistant strain increases

142
Q

What is MRSA?

A

A relatively common ‘superbug’ that’s really hard to get rid of. It often affects people in hospitals and can be fatal if it enters their bloodstream

143
Q

Why is antibiotic resistance getting worse?

A

The overuse and inappropriate use of antibiotics

144
Q

3 ways to reduce the rate of development of antibiotic resistant strains

A

1) Doctors should not prescribe antibiotics inappropriately such as treating non-serious or viral infections

2) Patients should complete their course of antibiotics so all bacteria are killed and none survive to mutate and form resistant strains

3) The agricultural use of antibiotics should be restricted.

145
Q

Why is it a problem that development of new antibiotics is costly and slow?

A

It means we are unlikely to be able to keep up with the demand for new drugs as more antibiotic-resistant strains develop and spread

146
Q

What is classification?

A

Organising living organisms into groups

147
Q

What is the Linnaean system?

A

A system by Carl Linnaeus which groups living things according to their characteristics and the structures that make them up

148
Q

What is the order for the Linnaean system?

A

Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

149
Q

How are organisms named from the Linnaean system?

A

According to the Binomial system- A two part Latin name with the first part referring to the genus and the second part referring to the species (e.g homo sapiens)

150
Q

What 2 things allowed scientists to put forward new modes of classification?

A

1) Knowledge of the biochemical processes
2) Microscopes improving

151
Q

What did Carl Woese propose in 1990?

A

The three-domain system

152
Q

What are the 3 large groups in the Three-Domain system?

A

Archaea (primitive bacteria usually living in extreme environments)
Bacteria (true bacteria)
Eukaryota (includes protists, fungi, plants and animals)

153
Q

What do evolutionary trees show?

A

A method used by scientists to show how they believe organisms are related. They use current classification data for living organisms and fossil data for extinct organisms.

GCSE BIOLOGY (7 decks)

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