Other Information Final Flashcards
How do you use the energy of triacylglycerides?
through beta oxidation of the fatty acids
Difference between sphingolipid and sphingophospholipid?
Sphingophospholipid has a phosphate group attached
What bond connects a sphingophospholipid?
an amide bond connects to the phosphate
What bond connects a glycerophospholipid?
an ester bond connects to the phosphate
phosphatidylinositol-4,5 bisphosphate
is a type of glycerophospholipid
commonly known as PIP2
second messenger used in a variety of pathways
we talk about it being cleaved in DAG and IP3 to release Ca2+
cleaved by phospholipase C in this pathway
phosphatidylserine
a type of glycerophospholipids
found on the interior of membranes
abbreviated PS
charge is -1
phosphatidylinositol-4,5 bisphosphate
charge is -4
phosphatidylcholine
a type of glycerophospholipid
found on the outer leaflet of membranes
abbreviated PC
charge is 0
Phosphatidylethanolamine
a type of glycerophospholipid
found on the interior of membranes
abbreviate PE
charge is 0
Do all organelle membranes have the same composition of phospholipids?
no
What can happen if you can’t break individual sugars off of gangliosides?
diseases such as Tay Sachs when the enzyme does not work and lipids built up inside of the cell
GM2 is the lipid before Tay Sachs and would build up
sphingosine head
has a double bonded carbon followed by a branching -OH group
after the -OH group, things like amide groups can be attached to link phosphate groups or more sugars
What is bile acid?
a type of sterol
What are the three types of eicosanoids?
prostaglandins, thromboxanes, or leukotrienes
What type of inhibition do NSAIDs use to block prostaglandins from producing inflammatory response?
competitive inhibition
they block COX enzyme which synthesizes prostaglandin
What is an example of an NSAID?
ibuprofin
How do we make sure people get vitamin A?
put it in rice
Why does the body need vitamin K?
needs to be able to convert GLU to GLA residues
this activates an enzyme which cleaves prothrombin to thrombin
thrombin then cleaves fibrinogen to fibrin which causes the clotting of blood
Warfarin
is an antagonist and blood thinner
competes with Vitamin K to bind to enzyme that cleaves prothrombin to thrombin
when Warfarin binds there is less blood clotting because thrombin is not activated
Antagonist
type of ligand or drug that binds to a site and blocks the receptor rather than activating it
What do vitamin K and vitamin E have?
isoprene units
What is an example of a sphingophospholipid?
sphingomyelin
one phosphate group for one fatty acid chain
How can you recognize the structure of cholesterol?
the polar -OH group on the steriod head
How does vitamin D3 get converted into usable nutrients?
by the liver and kidneys
Where do we get vitamin D from?
UV light in the sun
What happens if you can’t break down sphingomyelin?
Niemann-Pick disease
Epimers
configuration of carbohydrate differs at a single carbon
Alpha versus beta carbohydrates
- OH group at anomeric carbon points upward is a beta carbohydrate
- OH group at anomeric carbon points downwards is an alpha carbohydrate
Hemiacetal versus hemiketal
Hemiacetal is -OH, -OR, -H, and -R
Hemiketal is -OH, -OR, -R1, and -R2
How is a hemiacetal formed?
-OH group attacks carbonyl group at the anomeric carbon
Anomeric carbon
in a ring structure, this is the carbonyl that was attacked to form a hemiacetal/hemiketal
mutarotation
flipping between alpha and beta form at anomeric carbon
What happens once you have a glycosidic bond?
no more mutarotation
hemiacetal is replaced with an acetal group
Non-reducing sugars
sugars that do not have an open anomeric end (no hemiacetal / hemiketal)
need to be able to linearize in order to be a reducing sugar
Starch and glycogen
Homopolysaccharides of glucose used to store energy
Connected at alpha 1-4
Branched at 1-6
Can break down starch and glycogen at the alpha 1-4 linkage
Does glycogen phosphorylase bind to the reducing or nonreducing end of glycogen?
binds to nonreducing ends
there are more nonreducing ends to bind to so it is more efficient
there is only one reducing end
Alpha linkages versus beta linkages structure
Alpha linkages are helical and can hydrogen bond with water
Beta linkages are zig zagged and hydrogen bond with themselves
We can break down alpha linkages but not beta linkages
Cellulose and Chitin
use beta linkages so we cannot break them down
need to use bacteria in the gut to do this
used more for structure, while starch and glycogen are used for energy storage
What are blood types produced by?
sphingolipids with different oligosaccharide chains
How can the cell change and respond to a signal?
cellular environment
protein activity
gene expression
CFTR chloride transport
cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR)
a membrane protein that transports chlorides
*need to look at more info on pg 415
Pertussis toxin
prevents GDP exchange for GTP in Gai
leads to sustained activation of adenyl cyclase and elevated cAMP levels
Gai versus Gas subunits
Activating Gai leads to inactivation of adenyl cyclase
Gas subunit stimulates activation of adenyl cyclase
Cholera toxin versus pertussis toxin
Cholera works on the Gas subunit while pertussis works on the Gai
both lead to same response and activation of adenyl cyclase
What type of inhibitor is viagra?
viagra works as an competitive inhibitor of phosphodiesterase
prevents breakdown of cGMP
Herceptin (what it is and the ways it works)
monoclonal antibody that binds to the HER2 protein
Tyrosine kinase is HER2 protein in cancer cells
Cancer cells have many more tyrosine kinase receptors in order to bind growth factor even in low concentrations
herceptin binds to tyrosine kinase and target them for the immune system
herceptin also works as an antagonist and blocks growth factor from entering the tyrosine kinase
What is the advantage of using a monoclonal antibody to target cancer cells?
all the antibodies are uniform which prevents side effects
Vassopressin
does the opposite of viagra and triggers vassoconstriction
is an example of a peptide hormone
elevates Ca2+ levels
Presses those veins together!
How do constituents of the cell membrane freely move?
through non-covalent weak interactions
Amphoteric membrane proteins
not permanently associated with the cell membrane but associate dyanmically
peripheral membrane proteins are like this too
Which direction do flippases and floppases move?
flippases move stuff from extracellular leaflets to intracellular leaflets
floppases move stuff from intracellular leaftlets to extracellular leaflets
Chloride bicarbonate transporter
passive transporter
moves negative bicarbonate out of the cell and negative chloride into the cell
maintains electrical balance
antiport: molecules move in opposite directions
Lactose transporter
Secondary active transporter
Initial endergonic pumping of H+ out / the exergonic flow of H+ in is coupled to allow lactose to flow against its gradient
After H+s are pumped against their gradient, they fall back down their natural gradient and take lactose with them
Hydrogen cyanide can block the lactose transporter
Sodium-potassium pump
primary active transporter
pumps 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in
Cotransporter: phosphorylation of a critical Asp causes conformational changes
Glycogen phosphorylase
breaks off a glucose from a glycogen chain
triggered in response to a phosphorylation cascade that begins with PKA
inhibited by insulin
Posterior pituitary gland
hypothalamus dumps vassopressin and oxytoxin to posterior pituitary through a neuron
then, posterior pituitary distributes these hormones into the bloodstream
anterior pituitary gland
hypothalamus sends tropic hormones to the anterior pituitary through the blood stream
thermogenin
used in brown adipose cells to generate heat
disrupts mitochondrial membranes
How do you breakdown fatty acids?
beta oxidation
Two examples of ketoacids
acetoacetate and B-hydroxybutyrate
How do you have both ketoacidosis and high blood sugar levels in diabetes?
the cell does not have enough internal sugar, so goes into panic mood and does gluconeogenesis
cell ends up producing more glucose and putting in blood stream
at the same time, don’t have enough sugar in cell so have to use lipids for fuel and go into ketoacidosis
From which end do you start labeling omega carbons on fatty acids?
Start from the opposite end of the carboxylic acid
What does GTPase do?
hydrolyzes GTP to GDP
turns off activated g-proteins
How are the D/L configurations of carbohydrates related?
they are enantiomers
Which subunit does cholera bind to?
the g-alpha subunit
prevents GTP from becoming GDP
Example of a peptide hormone
insulin
Example of a catelcholamine hormone
epinephrine
What do you use to make fatty acids in the liver?
acetyl coA
What does not happen to amino acids in the liver?
they are not stored for later use
either made into new proteins, used to make pyruvate, precursors for nucleotide synthesis
What are the substrates and products of PFK?
fructose 6-phosphate + ATP –> fructose 1,6-bisphose + ADP
