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Organisation Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Cells

A

Basic building blocks that make up all living organisms

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2
Q

Tissue

A

Group of similar cells that work together to carry out a particular function

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3
Q

Organ

A

Group of different tissues that work together to perform a particular function

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4
Q

Organ system

A

Group of organs working together to perform a particular function

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5
Q

Why can’t temperature be raised to speed up bodily reactions

A
  • would speed up both useful and unwanted reactions
  • cells would be damaged if temperature raised too high
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6
Q

Enzyme

A

Biological catalyst which increases the speed of a useful chemical reactions in the body without being changed or used up

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7
Q

How do enzymes get unique shape

A
  • they are large proteins so made up of chains of amino acids
  • chains folded into unique shapes
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8
Q

Active site

A

Enzyme’s uniquely shaped area where only substance involved in reaction binds

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9
Q

Induced fit enzyme model

A

Active site slightly changes shape as the substrate binds to get a tighter fit

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10
Q

Effect of temperature on enzymes

A
  • higher temperature increases rate of reaction
  • too high temperature breaks some bonds holding enzyme together, causing active site shape to change and substrate not fit
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11
Q

What does optimum temperature mean

A

Temperature which enzymes work best at

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12
Q

How does PH affect enzymes

A

Too high or low PH interferes with bonds holding enzyme together, changing shape of active site so substrate no longer fits

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13
Q

Optimum enzyme PH

A
  • PH which enzymes work best at
  • usually 7
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14
Q

Denatured enzyme

A

Enzyme which no longer works

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15
Q

Enzymes practical

A
  • iodine drops in spotting tile
  • Bunsen burner on heatproof mat with tripod and gauze over
  • beaker of water on top heated to 35°C using thermometer
  • syringe adds 1cm³ of amylase solution and 1cm³ of buffer solution with PH 5 to boiling tube
  • place in test tube holders next to water for 5 minutes
  • different syringe adds 5cm³ of starch solution to boiling tube
  • mix boiling tube and start stop clock
  • continuously sample how long it takes for amylase to break down starch
  • use a pipette to drop fresh sample from boiling tube into iodine every 30 seconds until iodine is browny-orange
  • repeat with different PHs
  • calculate rate of reaction with 1000/time
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16
Q

What is amylase

A

A carbohydrase

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17
Q

What does amylase break down

A

Starch

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18
Q

What is starch broken down into

A

Glucose

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19
Q

Where is amylase made

A
  • small intestine
  • pancreas
  • salivary glands
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20
Q

What does protease break down

A

Proteins

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21
Q

What is protein broken down into

A

Amino acids

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22
Q

Where is protease made

A
  • small intestine
  • pancreas
  • stomach
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23
Q

What does lipase break down

A

Lipids

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24
Q

What are lipids broken down into

A
  • fatty acids
  • glycerol
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25
Q

Where is lipase made

A
  • small intestine
  • pancreas
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26
Q

Function of bile

A
  • neutralises hydrochloric acid from stomach
  • emulsifies fat
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27
Q

How does bile neutralise stomach acid

A

It is alkaline

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28
Q

Why must bile neutralise stomach acid

A

Enzymes in small intestine work best in alkaline conditions

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29
Q

Fat emulsification

A

Breaks fat down into tiny droplets with bigger surface area for lipase to act on, speeding up digestion

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30
Q

Where is bile produced

A

Liver

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31
Q

Where is bile stored

A

Gallbladder

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32
Q

Where is bile released into

A

Small intestine

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33
Q

Where are enzymes in digestive system produced

A

Specialised cells in gut lining

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34
Q

Salivary glands

A

Produce amylase in saliva

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35
Q

Oesophogus

A
  • where food passes through to enter stomach
  • uses peristalsis to contract and relax muscles and squeeze food down
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36
Q

Stomach

A
  • pummels food with muscular walls
  • produces protease enzyme - pepsin
  • produces hydrochloric acid to kill bacteria and give right PH (2) for protease
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37
Q

Pancreas

A

Produces enzymes and releases them into small intestine

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38
Q

Small intestine

A

Digested food is absorbed out of digestive system into blood

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39
Q

Large intestine

A

Excess water is absorbed from food

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40
Q

Rectum

A

Where faeces is stored before leaving through anus

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41
Q

What mainly makes up faeces

A

Indigestible food

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42
Q

How to prepare food sample

A
  • break up food in pestle and mortar
  • add to beaker with distilled water
  • stir with glass rod to dissolve
  • filter using funnel and filter paper to get rid of solid bits
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43
Q

Types of sugars

A
  • reducing
  • non-reducing
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44
Q

How to test for reducing sugars

A
  • add food sample to test tube
  • add around 10 drops of Benedict’s solution using pipette
  • place test tube in 75°C water bath for 5 minutes
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45
Q

Positive result for reducing sugars

A

Blue to green/yellow/brick-red

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46
Q

Negative result for reducing sugars

A

No colour change

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47
Q

How to test for starch

A
  • add food sample to test tube
  • add few drops of iodine and gently shake
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48
Q

Positive result for starch

A

Browny-orange to black blue

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49
Q

Negative result for starch

A

No change

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50
Q

How to test for proteins

A
  • add food to test tube
  • as biuret solution and gently shake
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51
Q

Positive result for protein

A

Blue to purple

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52
Q

Negative result for protein

A

No change

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53
Q

How to test for lipids

A
  • add food to test tube
  • add 3 drops of Sudan III solution and gently shake
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54
Q

Positive result for lipids

A

Mixture will separate into 2 layers with top bright red

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55
Q

Negative result for lipids

A

No separate layer

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56
Q

Where are lungs

A

In the thorax

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57
Q

Thorax

A

Top part of the body

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58
Q

What separates thorax from lower body

A

Diaphragm

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59
Q

What surrounds lungs

A

Rib cage and pleural membranes

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60
Q

Where does inhaled air go

A

Through the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and into alveoli for gas exchange

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61
Q

What surrounds alveoli

A

Network of blood capillaries

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62
Q

How do alveolus carry out gas exchange

A
  • oxygen diffuses from alveolus to blood
  • carbon dioxide diffuses from blood to alveolus to be breathed out
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63
Q

How does gas exchange happen between body cells and blood

A
  • oxygen diffuses from red blood cells to body cells
  • carbon dioxide diffuses from body cells to blood and is carried back to lungs
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64
Q

What type of circulatory system do humans have

A

Double circulatory system

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65
Q

First circulatory system circuit

A
  • right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs to take in oxygen
  • that blood returns to heart
66
Q

Second circulatory system circuit

A
  • left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood around the body
  • deoxygenated blood returns to heart to be pumped to lungs again
67
Q

What are walls of heart made of

A

Muscle tissue

68
Q

Valves

A

Stop blood flowing backwards

69
Q

Four chambers of the heart

A
  • right atrium
  • left atrium
  • right ventricle
  • left ventricle
70
Q

Vena cava

A

Deoxygenated blood flows through from the body to the right atrium

71
Q

How does blood go from atrial to ventricles

A

Atria contract

72
Q

How does blood go from ventricles to atria

A

Ventricles contract

73
Q

Pulmonary artery

A

Takes deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs

74
Q

Pulmonary vein

A

Brings oxygenated blood from lungs to heart

75
Q

Aorta

A

Takes oxygenated blood from heart to rest of body

76
Q

Coronary artieries

A

Surround the heart and supply it with oxygenated blood

77
Q

Pacemaker

A
  • control resting heart rate
  • group of cells in right atrium wall
  • produce small electrical impulse which spreads to surrounding muscle cells, causing them to contract
78
Q

Artificial pacemaker

A
  • controls heartbeat if natural pacemaker doesn’t work properly
  • little device implanted under skin with wire going into heart
  • produces electrical rhythm to keep heart beating regularly
79
Q

Types of blood vessel

A
  • arteries
  • capillaries
  • veins
80
Q

Arteries function

A

Carry blood away from heart

81
Q

Arteries features

A
  • strong elastic walls withstand high blood pressure
  • thick layers of muscle
  • elastic fibres allow them to stretch and spring back
  • thick walls with small lumen
82
Q

Capillaries function

A

Involved in exchange of materials at tissues

83
Q

Capillaries features

A
  • carry blood close to every cell for substance exchange
  • permeable wall so substances can diffuse
  • walls 1 cell thick to increase rate of diffusion by decreasing distance
84
Q

Veins function

A

Carry blood back to the heart

85
Q

Veins features

A
  • thinner walls and bigger lumen as blood is lower pressure
  • valves keep blood flowing in right direction
86
Q

Four main things in blood

A
  • red blood cells
  • white blood cells
  • platelets
  • plasma
87
Q

Red blood cells function

A

Carry oxygen from lungs to all cells in body

88
Q

Red blood cells adaptations

A
  • contain haemoglobin to carry oxygen molecules
  • no nucleus allowing more space to carry oxygen
  • biconcave shape (flat disc with side dips) increasing surface area to increase oxygen absorption
89
Q

Haemoglobin

A
  • in lungs, binds to oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin
  • in body cells, oxyhaemoglobin splits up and oxygen released into cells
90
Q

White blood cells function

A

Defend against infection

91
Q

How do white blood cells defend against infection

A
  • change shape to kill unwanted microorganisms in phagocytosis
  • produce antibodies to fight microorganisms
  • produce antitoxins to neutralise toxins produced by microorganisms
  • have nucleus
92
Q

Platelets

A

Small fragments of cells with no nucleus which help blood clot at a wound to stop blood getting out and microorganisms

93
Q

What does plasma contain

A
  • red blood cells
  • white blood cells
  • platelets
  • nutrients
  • carbon dioxide
  • urea
  • hormones
  • proteins
  • antibodies
  • antitoxins
94
Q

Coronary heart disease

A
  • coronary arteries get blocked by layers of fatty material building up
  • arteries become narrow so blood flow is restricted
  • lack of oxygen goes to heart muscle
  • can cause heart attack
95
Q

Methods of combating heart disease

A
  • stents
  • statins
96
Q

Stents

A

Tubes inserted in arteries to keep them open so blood can pass through to heart muscles

97
Q

Stents advantages

A
  • effective for long time
  • quick recovery time from surgery
98
Q

Stents disadvantages

A
  • risk of complications and infection from start
  • risk of developing blood clot near stent (thrombosis)
99
Q

Statins

A
  • drugs that reduce bad LDL cholesterol in the blood stream
  • slows down rate of fatty deposits forming
100
Q

Statins advantages

A
  • reduce risk of strokes, coronary heart disease, heart attacks
  • increase good HDL cholesterol which can remove bad LDL cholesterol
  • may prevent some other diseases
101
Q

Statins disadvantages

A
  • long term drug, must be taken regularly, may forget
  • negative side effects, some serious (kidney failure)
  • takes time for effect to work
102
Q

Artificial heart

A

Mechanical device that pumps blood when a heart has failed until a donor heart is found

103
Q

Artificial heart advantages

A
  • less likely to be rejected by body’s immune system as there are no foreign cells
104
Q

Artificial heart disadvantages

A
  • surgery can lead to bleeding and infection
  • electrical motor could fail
  • blood doesn’t flow through as smoothly, can cause blood clots
  • have to take drugs to thin blood which can cause problems with bleeding in an accident
105
Q

Causes of valve damage

A
  • heart attack
  • infection
  • old age
106
Q

What can valve damage cause

A
  • stiff valve tissue that doesn’t open properly
  • leaky valve which lets blood flow both ways
  • less effective blood circulation
107
Q

Types of valve replacement

A
  • biological
  • mechanical
108
Q

Advantages of valve replacements

A
  • less drastic procedure
109
Q

Disadvantages of valve replacements

A
  • major surgery which can cause blood clots
110
Q

Artificial blood

A

Blood substitute (like saline) used to replace lost blood, giving time for new blood cells to be produces

111
Q

Advantages of artificial blood

A

Can keep patient alive when 2/3 of red blood cells lost

112
Q

Disadvantages of artificial blood

A

Doesn’t contain red blood cells

113
Q

Health

A

State of physical and mental wellbeing

114
Q

Communicable diseases

A

Diseases that can be spread from person to person of between animals and people

115
Q

What can cause communicable diseases

A

Things like
- bacteria
- viruses
- parasites
- fungi

116
Q

Non-communicable diseases

A

Diseases that cannot spread between people or between animals and people

117
Q

Who have an increased chance of suffering from communicable diseases

A
  • people with problems with their immune system
  • their body is less likely to be able to defend itself against certain pathogens
118
Q

What can immune system reactions causes by an infection by a pathogen cause

A
  • allergic reactions
  • worsened asthma symptoms
119
Q

When can mental health problems be triggered by physical health problems

A
  • when they have an impact on a person’s ability to carry out everyday activities
  • when they affect a persons life expectancy
120
Q

Factors affecting health

A
  • diet - should be balances
  • life situation - access to medicine, food, condoms
  • stress
121
Q

What is a risk factor in disease

A

Things that are linked to an increased likelihood that a person with develop a certain disease in their lifetime

122
Q

Risk factors that can cause disease directly

A
  • smoking
  • obesity
  • drinking
  • exposure to certain substances
  • exposure to radiation
123
Q

Costs of non communicable disease

A
  • human cost to sufferers and loved ones
  • financial cost of research and treating disease
  • financial cost if a family member dies and income is reduced
124
Q

What causes cancer

A

Uncontrolled cell growth and division resulting in formation of a tumour

125
Q

Tumour

A

Mass of cells

126
Q

Types of tumours

A
  • benign
  • malignant
127
Q

Benign tumour

A
  • grows until there is no more room and stays in place
  • doesn’t invade other bodily tissues
  • not cancerous
128
Q

Malignant tumour

A
  • grows and spreads into neighbouring healthy tissue
  • cells can break off and travel to other parts of body though bloodstream, invading healthy tissue and forming secondary tumours
  • cancerous
129
Q

Cancer risk factors

A
  • smoking can cause lung, mouth, bowel, stomach, cervical cancer
  • obesity can cause bowel, liver, kidney cancer
  • UV exposure can cause skin cancer
  • viral infection like hepatitis B/C can cause liver cancer
  • genetics - faulty genes can make you more susceptible to cancer
130
Q

Plant organs

A
  • stems
  • roots
  • leaves
131
Q

Plant tissue

A
  • epidermal
  • palisade mesophyll
  • spongy mesophyll
  • xylem
  • phloem
  • meristem
132
Q

Where is epidermal tissue

A

Covering entire plant

133
Q

Epidermal tissue adaptations

A
  • covered with a waxy cuticle which helps to reduce water loss by evaporation
  • upper epidermis is transparent so light can pass through to palisade layer
134
Q

Palisade mesophyll tissue

A

Where most photosynthesis takes place

135
Q

Palisade mesophyll tissue adaptations

A

Lots of chloroplasts at top of leaf where they get the most light

136
Q

Spongy mesophyll tissue

A

Contains big air spaces to allow gases to diffuse in and out of cells

137
Q

Xylem and phloem tissue

A

Transport things like water, mineral ions and food around the plant

138
Q

Xylem and phloem tissue adaptations

A
  • form network of vascular bundles which deliver water and nutrients around the leaf and take away glucose from photosynthesis
  • support leaf structure
139
Q

Spongy mesophyll tissue adaptations

A
  • contains air spaces to increase rate of diffusion of gases
140
Q

What are phloem tubes made of

A

Elongated living cells with small pores in the end walls that allow cell sap to flow through

141
Q

Translocation

A

Transportation of food substances (mainly dissolved sugars) made in leaves to rest of plant for immediate use or storage in both directions

142
Q

What are xylem cells made up of

A

Dead cells joined end to end with no walls and a hole down the middle, strengthen by lignin

143
Q

Lignin

A

Helps xylem cells withstand high water pressure

144
Q

What do xylem tubes transport

A
  • water
  • mineral ions
145
Q

Where do xylem tubes take water/mineral ions

A

From roots to stem and leaves

146
Q

Transpiration stream

A

Movement of water from roots, through xylem and out of leaves

147
Q

What causes transpiration

A

Evaporation and diffusion of water from plant’s surface

148
Q

Where does most transpiration happen

A

Leaves

149
Q

How is water in leaves lost by evaporation replaced

A

Drawn up from rest of plant through xylem vessels

150
Q

What causes constant transpiration stream

A
  • water lost from leaf by evaporation is replaced by being drawn up from rest of plant through xylem
  • water is drawn up from roots to replace that
151
Q

Factors affecting transpiration rate

A
  • light intensity
  • temperature
  • air flow
  • humidity
152
Q

How does light intensity affect transpiration rate

A
  • brighter light means greater rate
  • stomata close as it gets darker as photosynthesis can’t happen so very little water can escape
153
Q

How does temperature affect rate of transpiration

A
  • warmer means faster rate
  • water particles have more energy to evaporate and diffuse out stomata
154
Q

How does air flow affect transpiration rate

A
  • better air flow means faster rate
  • when air flow is poor, (highly concentrated) water vapour surrounds leaf so diffusion can’t occur
  • when air flow is good, water vapour is swept away so diffusion can occur
155
Q

How does humidity affect transpiration rate

A
  • drier air means faster rate
  • in humid air, there is (highly concentrated) water vapour outside the leaf do diffusion can’t occur
156
Q

What happens to guard cells when plant has lots of water

A
  • fill with water and go plump and turgid
  • opening stomata for gas exchange for photosynthesis
157
Q

What happens to guard cells when plant is short of water

A
  • lose water and become flaccid
  • stomata close to stop water vapour escaping
158
Q

What helps stomata open and close

A
  • thin outer walls
  • thick inner walls
159
Q

How does light affect guard cells

A

Close and night when it’s dark as photosynthesis can’t happen

160
Q

Why are there more stomata on underside of leaf

A

It’s shaded and cooler so less water is lost through stomata

Biology (4 decks)

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