Organisation 🫀 Flashcards
1
Q
What do muscle do and what do they contain that helps them?
A
Contract and contain protein fibres which can change their lengths
And mitochondria to provide energy for muscle contacting
2
Q
What is a tissue ?
A
A group of cells with the same structure and function
3
Q
What is an organ? Give an example.
A
A group of tissues that work together for a specific function like the stomach - muscle tissues and glandular tissues that release enzymes
4
Q
What are organs grouped into and what do they do?
A
Work together to form organisms
5
Q
What are the 3 main nutrients In food?
A
Lipids - fat
Proteins
Carbs
6
Q
Why do lipids proteins and carbs have to be digested ?
A
Too large to fit in blood stream
7
Q
What happens during digestion?
A
Large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules which can then be absorbed into the blood stream
8
Q
describe how food is digested.
A
Food is chews in the mouth 👄 enzymes such as amylase found in saliva defeat the starch and sugars
Food passes down oesophagus onto the stomach and protease produces pepsin which digests proteins
Hydrochloric acid is stored to kill bacteria and give protease the right PH for optimal performance- 2
Churning of muscles of stomach turns food to fluid increased surface area of enzymes to digest
Fluid goes into small intestine and chemicals are realised into it from liver and pancreas
Pancreas produces protease amylase and lipase and releases it to the small intestine
Liver release bile which helps emulsify and break down and speed up digestion of lipids and bile neutralises acid related for the stomach
Goes into small intestines with releases protease lipase and amylase small food molecules are absorbed into the blood stream by diffusion or active transport
Fluid goes into large intestine where water is absorbed into blood stream
Poo leaves the body
9
Q
What are the products of digestion used for?
A
To build new carbohydrates lipids and proteins
10
Q
What is the glucose produced in digestion used for ?
A
Respiration
11
Q
What do enzymes do ?
A
Catalyse ( speed up and does not get used up) chemical reactions
12
Q
What are enzymes ?
A
Large protein molecules that has an active site where the substrate attaches to
13
Q
Explain the lock and key 🔐 model and how Enzymes work
A
An active site has to be complimentary in order for them to be able to catalyse a reaction
Enzyme breaks down substrate to form new products
14
Q
What are enzymes ?
A
Specific
15
Q
What are proteins broken down by? Where do we find it?
A
Protease - stomach small intestine and pancreas
16
Q
What happens when we digest proteins ?
A
The proteases convert the proteins back to the individual amino acids which are absorbed by the blood stream
Then they join together in a different order to make human proteins
17
Q
What is starch?
A
A chain of glucose molecules
18
Q
What is starch broken down by?
A
Amylase
19
Q
What are carbs broken down by? Which enzyme ?
A
Carbohydrases
20
Q
What happens when starch is digested?
A
The chain of glucose is broken down by amylase to produce simple sugars
21
Q
Where is amylase found ?
A
Saliva in mouth and pancreatic fluid
22
Q
What do lipid molecules consist of ?
A
Molecules of glycerol attached to 3 fatty acids
23
Q
What are lipids digested by ? Found in ?
A
Lipase and it separates the glycerol and 3 fatty acids
Pancreas and small intestine
24
Q
Where is bile made? What does it do to lipids (fats )
A
In the liver and stored in gall bladder
Speed up digestion but is not an enzyme
Bile emulsifies large lipid droplets into smaller lipid droplets
This increase the SA of lipids and increases the rate of breaking it down
25
What is Bile’s PH? What does it allow it to do?
Alkaline - neutralises stomach acid creating alkaline conditions in small intestine increasing the rate of digestion of lipids
26
Why do enzymes activity increase and we increase temp?
Increase KE so there are more collisions of active sites and substrates per second
27
What is the optimum temperature for enzymes?
The best temp that causes enzymes to work at it’s fastest possible rate max frequency of successful collisions of active sites and substrates (37.4•c)
28
Why at very high temperatures do enzymes stop 🛑 working?
Because they start to denature deforming the active side and substrates no longer making the complimentary
Enzyme molecules vibrate - changes shape
Enzyme can no longer catalyse reaction
29
What happens if we make a optimal PH of an enzyme more acidic or alkaline ? Why?
Activity drops to 0 - active site denatures if conditions are too acidic or alkaline
30
LOOK AT MIND MAP FOR TITRATION CALCULATIONS 🫗
31
Explain the effect the PH in Amylase practical ?
Place one drop of iodine solution onto the well of the spotting tile
Will turn from orange to blue-black if starch is present
Add starch solutions into test tubes
Amylase and buffer solution - PH 5
2cm^3
Label and place them in a water bath of 30•c and leave them for 10 minutes to reach the correct temp
Combine all the tests tubes and stir with glass rod them immediately but back in water bath and start timing it with stop watch
After 30 seconds add drop of solution using a stirring rod into the drops of iodine in the spotting tiles
The iodine should turn blue-black and that indicates that starch in present
Continue keeping tube in water bath until the iodine stays orange. This indicates that there is no starch present - reaction is complete
Record the time taken for reaction to finish for your results
Replete using different PH buffers like 7 and 8
32
What are the problems with the PH practical for amylase ?
Taking PH every 30 seconds so we have an approximate time until reaction is compete
We are looking when the iodine stops going orange to blue-black which may be hard to see as it’s gradual
Ask several people and decide if its complete
33
Describe the food test practice
Grind food using mortar and pestle and make a paste using distilled water
Add food to beakers and add distilled water and still chemicals in food allowing the food to dissolve in the water
Filter solution to remove suspended food particles
34
How do we test for starch ?
But food solution in test tube - 2cm^3
Add iodine - orange
Iodine will turn orange to blue-black
If there is no starch present iodine will stay orange
35
How do we test for sugars ?
Add food solution in test tube
Add Benedict solution and place test tube 🧪 in a Becker with hot water and leave it for 5 mins
If sugars are present the Benedict’s solutions should turn blue to green yellow then brick-red 🧱
36
How can we tell the sugar concentration in a food solution?
Green - little sugar
Yellow - a bit more
Red - a lot
37
What type of sugars does the Benedict solution only work on?
Reducing sugars like glucose
38
What will the Benedict’s solution not work on?
Non-reducing sugars - sucrose
39
How do we test for proteins ?
Add 2cm^3 of food solution then Biuret solution - blue to lilac if protein is present
40
How do we test for lipids ? Why do we not filter it? What do we do instead?
Make food into paste but don’t filter through as lipid molecules can stick to filter paper
Add ethanol and food solution and gently shake it
Does from with to milky and cloudy
Important that no naked flames are present
41
How is the small intestine adapted for absorption?
Very long - large SA for absorption of molecules of products of digestion
Interior is covered with millions of villi which increased SA
42
How is the villi adapted for absorption of molecules in digestion ? (Small intestine )
Covered in microvilli- increases SA allowing more molecules to be absorbed at a time
Good blood supply so the villi rapidly removes products of digestion - increased concentration gradient
Has thin membrane to ensure a short diffusion path
LEADING TO A RAPID RATE OF DIFFUSION
43
What is produces when amylase breaks down starch ?
Sugar (glucose) and maltose
44
What does mesophyll do in plants ?
Helps plant photosynthesis
45
What is epidermal tissue?
Tissues that ones the outer surface of muscles
46
Give an example of epidermal tissue
Skin and waxy covering of plants
47
What are the 2 types of tissue ?
Epidermal and muscular
48
What does the glandular tissue do ?
Produces digestive juices that breaks down stomachs food
49
What does the muscular tissue do ?
Churns food around
50
What are the 3 tissues that make the stomach?- organ
Epithermrel glandular and muscular
51
What does the liver do ?
Produce bile
52
What type of molecule is an enzyme?
Protein
53
What are the positives of enzymes
Saves costs as can be used in low temperatures
Doesn’t get used up
54
What do we use if there are any molecules that cannot be absorbed by the villi by diffusion?
We use active transport
55
What are the 4 type of blood cells ?
Plasma
Platelets
Red blood cells
White blood cells
56
Explain the red blood cells
Has a biconcave shape to calmly oxygen - no nucleus - high surface area to carry oxygen
Job to carry oxygen
Has haemoglobin - red pigment- binds with oxygen - oxyhemoglobin
In tissues oxyhemoglobin unbinds with oxygen- releasing oxygen to cells
57
Explain platelets
Small fragments of cells
Helps clots wounds
Stops bleeding and microorganisms 🦠 entering
Lack of this leads to death
58
What is plasma ?
Straw coloured liquid that carries everything in the blood
Amino acids
Proteins
Urea
White blood cells
Antitoxins
RBS
Platelets
Antibodies
Co2
59
What do white blood cells do ?
Defend the body against infection
60

61
What circulatory system
Do fishes have?
Single circulatory system
62
Explain the Circulatory system in fish
Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to the gills
Where it connects oxygen and becomes oxygenated which passes into the organs where the where the oxygen diffuses out of the blood and into body cells
Blood returns back into the heart
63
What is the issue with the single circulatory system in fish ?
Blood loses a lot of pressure as it passes feed the gills before reaching organs
Meaning that blood travels to the organs relatively slowly- So it cannot deliver great deal of oxygen
64
Explain how human have a double circulatory system 
Heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs and get pumped back as oxygenated blood back into the heart
Which pumps the oxygenated blood back into the organs and organs pump deoxygenated blood back to the heart
65
What is the benefit of having a double circulatory system?
Because it passes through the heart twice it can travel rapidly through the body cells due to the high pressure-Delivering the oxygen that the body needs
66
Describe how blood is pumped through the heart
Deoxygenated blood Is Pumped into the vena cava into the right atrium which contracts
Which pushes the blood through the into the right ventricle which contracts
pushing the blood out of the pulmonary artery out of the heart
and blood flow to the organs and returned as oxygenated blood to the pulmonary vein
And the blood is pumped to the left atrium which contracts
pushing it through the left ventricle which contracts
and the oxygenated blood is flowing out of the aorta 🫀 
67
What are valves
Valves are things that make sure blood flows in the right direction prevent it flowing backwards
68
What is the heart 
Organ that pumps blood around the body made up of muscle tissue
69
Where is the heart pacemaker located?
Right atrium
70
What is a pacemaker?
A group of cells that produce electrical impulses making your muscles contract
71
What do artificial pacemakers do?
It’s a device implanted in your right atrium and it produces an electrical current that keeps the heart beating regularly
72
What are the three different types of blood vessels?
capillaries
arteries
veins
73
What do arteries do
carry blood away from the heart
74
What do capillaries do
Exchange of materials at the tissue
75
what do veins do?
Carry blood into the heart
76
What are arteries properties?
Contain elastic fibres as they have to pump high-pressure blood out of the heart- strong
Wall is thick compared to the size of the lumen
Elastic fibres allow them to spring back

77
What are the capillaries properties?
Arteries branch out into capillaries
Capillaries are only one cell thick- thin membrane Decreases distance for diffusion
Carry blood really close to every cell to body to exchange substances
Has permeable also substance can diffuse in and out
Supply food and oxygen
takes away is to be like CO2
Small lumen contains a nucleus

78
What are the properties of Veins?
Veins take blood back to the heart
capillaries join up to form veins
they have a large lumen
elastic fibres and
smooth muscles and have valves
Low pressure so I don’t need thick walls like arteries
bigger lumen so blood can flow
Have a valves to keep blood flowing in the right direction and prevent backflow
79
What are the coronary arteries?
branch out from the aorta and spread into the heart muscle
80
What is the purpose of the coronary arteries?
Provide oxygen to muscle cells of the heart 🫀- used aerobic respiration to provide energy for contraction
81
What is cardiovascular disease?
And noncommunicable disease in the heart and blood vessels
82
What happens to somebody with coronary heart disease?
Fatty material builds up
causing the Coronary arteries to narrow
this decrease the amount blood flowing through the coronary arteries
Decreasing the Amount of oxygen for the heart
which can lead to a heart attack
Causing the heart to be starved of oxygen leading to death
83
What are the two commons treatments for coronary heart disease?
Statins reduce the level of cholesterol in blood- Slows down the rate of fatty material that builds up in the coronary arteries
Use of a stent- Used for people who have coronary arteries fully blocked by fat - Keeps coronary artery open
84
What are the positives of statins?
Have been proven to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease- Effective

85
What are the disadvantages of using statins?
Have unwanted side-effects- Can cause liver problems
86
What are the positives of using stents?
Blood can flow normally through the artery
87
What are disadvantages of using stents ?
Will not prevent other regions of the coronary arteries from narrowing - Does not treat the underlying causes of the disease
88
What may be another coronary heart disease?
Faulty Heart valves- do not work properly
89
What can faulty heart valves lead to🫀?
Faulty valves may fail to fully open
so the heart has to pump extra hard to get blood through
this may cause the heart to enlarge
Or valves could be leaky causing patient for weak or tired
90
How can we solve faulty heart 🫀valves? What may be a disadvantage?
We can replace it with a mechanical valve or a pig valve
which can last a lifetime
but increase the risk of blood clots so
patient may have to take anticlotting drugs
91
What may valves from animals lead to?
They may not last long so they may need to be replacing
however patients do not need to take anticlotting drugs
92
What is heart failure?
When the heart 🫀 cannot pump enough blood around the body
93
What happens to people with heart Failure? 
They are donated a heart and lungs
94
What is the issue with donating hearts for heart failure?
There is not enough hearts to be donated to treat every patient
Patients must take drugs to stop the blood being rejected by the bodies immune system
95
What’s may be an alternative to being donated a heart?
An artificial heart temporary solution while waiting for a heart transplant
96
what do artificial heart increase the risk of?
Increase the risk of blood clotting so patients have to take drugs that in thin blood
97
what can keep somebody alive in an emergency if they’re losing blood?
Artificial blood if there is no air bubbles can go for a blood transfusion
98
Explain how the lungs help us breathe
Humans have two lungs are travels down the trachea - Contains rings of cartilage prevents the trachea from collapsing during inhalation
Trachea split into two smaller tubes called bronchi
Which subdivide into bronchioles and at the end there are air sacs called alveoli- loads
The alveoli is where gases diffuse in an out of the bloodstream

99
What does the trachea contain?
Contains rings of cartilage prevents the trachea from collapsing during inhalation
100
Where do gases diffuse in and out of the bloodstream in our lungs?
Alveoli
101
Explain how the alveoli is adapted for gas exchange
Oxygen in the air diffuses into the blood stream from inside the alveoli
And the cover dioxide diffuses into the alveoli
The millions of alveoli means that the lungs have a high surface area
Alveoli has very thin walls makes diffusion distance very short
Alveoli has very good blood supply keeping its concentration gradient steep 
Once oxygen diffuses into the blood it’s rapidly removed
This make sure that oxygen rapidly diffuses into the blood stream and CO2 rapidly diffuses out of the bloodstream
102
How else can we increase the rate of diffusion of gas exchange?
By breathing bring in fresh oxygen
causing alveoli to take the carbon dioxide away
Making the concentration gradient high 
103
What is the key fact of mitosis?
It’s extremely tightly controlled
the gene 🧬 in the nucleus tells us when to divide
and when to stop dividing
104
What is cancer
Uncontrolled mitosis and growth
105
What does cancer produce?
Tumours
106
What are the two different types of tumours?
Benign and malignant
107
What is a benign tumour?
Growth of abnormal cells which are found in one area-Contained within a membrane
108
Where are benign tumours normally contained?
Within a membrane
109
What do you benign tumours not do?
They do not invade other parts of the body they stay in one place
110
What do malignant tumours do?
They invade neighbouring tissues and move into the bloodstream
111
What are malignant tumour cells classed as?
Classed as cancer
112
What do malignant cells do once they’re in the bloodstream?
Spread to different parts of the body where they form new tumours - Secondary tumours
113
What are some cancer linked to genetics?
Cancer is linked to genetics mean that they’re hereditary and the risk of getting them increases
Breast cancer
prostate cancer
large intestines cancer
114
What are some cancers linked to lifestyle?
Smoking – lung cancer
Ultraviolet light – skin cancer- tanning 👙
Alcohol – mouth and throat cancer
115
What Cancer can be caused by the environment?
Radon which is a radioactive gas which increases your risk of developing lung cancer
Releases ionising radiation which damages DNA- lead cells to undergo uncontrolled cell division leading to cancer
116
What can a health problem be caused by?
Poor diet
levels of stress
working with harmful chemicals
117
What can HPV cause
cervical cancer
118
Give an example of a disease doubling up and leading to another
Tuberculosis
HIV can damage the immune system causing to TB to be very difficult to fight off
119
Explain how HPV can lead to cervical cancer
HPV bacteria can spread to a cell in the cervix leading cervical cancer
120
What can what diseases can be triggered by the immune system?
Allergies - the body can be fighting of asthma Body is a attacked by a pathogen which is fights off but is left with an Allergy
121
Give an example how mental illness can be triggered by physical illness
Arthritis can lead to people feeling isolated and in pain which can lead to depression
which can lead to you not taking care of yourself hygienically which leads is getting a disease
122
Why could scientists not test on humans the causes of lung cancer? What did they do instead
Unethical so it’s closely at peoples lifestyles and habits
123
What is epidemiology?
Studying the patterns of diseases and determining the risk factors
124
What did scientists use epidemiology to do?
Study lung 🫁 cancer
they saw that people who smoke cigarettes 🚬 and will likely to develop lung cancer ♋️ than those who didn’t
They did this to see if there was a correlation between lung cancer and smoking 🚬
125
How did scientists proved the correlation between lung cancer and smoking ?
Plot scattergraph - Number of years as well
126
What does a correlation not prove?
The Cause - Just suggests that it may be linked
127
What does scientists do after finding a positive correlation between number of cigarette 🚬 smoke and a risk of lung 🫁 cancer ♋️ ?
How cigarettes could cause lung cancer this is called cause mechanism
128
What did scientists discovering the cause mechanism?
Cigarette 🚬 smoke contained chemicals which damaged DNA and increase the risk of cancer Carcinogens
129
Why do we expect that smoking increases the risk of lung cancer?
Because we have a positive correlation graphs and a cause mechanism
130
What is an issue with sampling?
Virtually impossible to interview every single person a see how their day went
so they get a group of people and draw a conclusion about the whole population
May not be representative may be biased people may take less exercise in one town then another - Invalid so we take large number of samples from random people as possible
131
Give an example of noncommunicable diseases
Cardiovascular diseases such as coronary heart diseases
Type two diabetes
cancer
132
lifestyle choices that may lead to cardiovascular diseases?
A diet high in fat low in vegetables may lead to high levels of cholesterol in the blood- Increases the rate that fatty material build up in the arteries
A diet high in salt may lead to an increase in blood pressure increases the the risk of developing cardiovascular disease
Smoking 🚬
133
What does smoking trigger?
Large number of chemicals to be produced which can cause cancers carcinogens
I need to unpleasant symptoms and need to our unpleasant life
134
What can smoking or drinking while pregnant cause?
A miscarriage and premature birth- Baby can be born with a low body mass
Could lead a baby to be born with fatal alcohol syndrome-Child to be born with learning difficulties and physical problems
135
What can drinking and access lead to
Liver cancer and affect the brain leading to addiction and memory loss
136
What can type two diabetes lead to?
Blindness or amputation of a limb
137
What is type two diabetes caused by?
Obesity-Access alcohol can be to obesity increasing the risk of type two diabetes
138
Label the cross-section of a leaf
Look at phone case 🙀😻👽👾🙀👊🥶
139
What does the upper and lower epidermis do?
Transparent still allows light through the photosynthetic cells below
140
What does the waxy cuticle do?
Thin and oily layer
Reduces the evaporation of water from the surface of the leaf- Helps prevent the leaf from Drying out
141
What does the stomata do?
Tiny paws allows carbon dioxide to enter
and oxygen to leave
controls the amount of water vapour that can pass out of the leaf
142
What are the palisade mesophyll cells?
Consists of palisade cells
full of chloroplast
which contain chlorophyll
which is a green substance that absorbs light energy needed for photosynthesis
143
What does the spongy mesophyll do?
Full of a air spaces
allow carbon dioxide to diffuse from the stomata
through the spongy mesophyll
to the palisade cells- Needed for photosynthesis
Oxygen diffuses from the palisade cells to the spongy mesophyll to the stomata
144
What does the xylem tissue stem do?
dead cells
joints and end to end
and made of lignin
Transports water and mineral ions- Magnesium iron used to make chlorophyll
from the roots to the stem to the leaves
Water can be used for photosynthesis
145
Describe the phloem 
Made of elongated living cells
with small pores at the end walls to allow cell sap to flow through
transport dissolved sugars for storage transports both directions
called translocation
Sugars can be used immediately for respiration
146
What is translocation?
Movement of glucose and other substances through the phloem
147
What is meristem tissue ?
Found in Growing tips
and contain stem cells cells that can differentiate into specific cells- plant tissue
148
Explain transpiration
Evaporation and diffusion from the leaves
Evaporation causes a shortage of water so more water is drawn from the xylem vessels to replace it there’s a constant transpiration stream
Water enters food roots water evaporates from leaves
Because there’s more water inside of the plant them in the outside air waterscape Stilleys through the stomata by diffusion
149
What is transpiration as side-effect of?
Photosynthesis
150
What are the four things affecting the transpiration rate?
Light intensity -the brighter the greater the transpiration rate stomata begins to close when it gets darker so little water can escape as photosynthesis can’t happen in the dark
Temperature -warmer faster transportation as water particles have more energy to evaporate and diffuse out of the stomata
Airflow -stronger wind greater the diffusion the transpiration rate would have a stay just around the leaf
if airflow is poor means that there is a high concentration of water particles diffusion doesn’t happen quickly
Humidity- The dryer is around to leaf the faster
151
Explain how Guard cells are adapted to open and close the stomata 5)
Parts have lots of water guard cells will go plump and turgid makes stomata open gases exchange for photosynthesis
If short with water or go flaccid making this tomato close there stops too much water from escaping
Thin out of walls and thicker in the walls make opening and closing work
sensitive to light so they close at night save water without losing it when we can’t do photosynthesis
find stomata on the underside of the leaf lower surface area shaded and cooler less water is lost
152
Which sides of the heart is deoxygenated and oxygenated?
Left side is deoxygenated right-sided oxygenated

