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Organisation 🫀 Flashcards

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1
Q

What do muscle do and what do they contain that helps them?

A

Contract and contain protein fibres which can change their lengths

And mitochondria to provide energy for muscle contacting

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2
Q

What is a tissue ?

A

A group of cells with the same structure and function

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3
Q

What is an organ? Give an example.

A

A group of tissues that work together for a specific function like the stomach - muscle tissues and glandular tissues that release enzymes

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4
Q

What are organs grouped into and what do they do?

A

Work together to form organisms

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5
Q

What are the 3 main nutrients In food?

A

Lipids - fat
Proteins
Carbs

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6
Q

Why do lipids proteins and carbs have to be digested ?

A

Too large to fit in blood stream

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7
Q

What happens during digestion?

A

Large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules which can then be absorbed into the blood stream

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8
Q

describe how food is digested.

A

Food is chews in the mouth 👄 enzymes such as amylase found in saliva defeat the starch and sugars

Food passes down oesophagus onto the stomach and protease produces pepsin which digests proteins

Hydrochloric acid is stored to kill bacteria and give protease the right PH for optimal performance- 2

Churning of muscles of stomach turns food to fluid increased surface area of enzymes to digest

Fluid goes into small intestine and chemicals are realised into it from liver and pancreas

Pancreas produces protease amylase and lipase and releases it to the small intestine

Liver release bile which helps emulsify and break down and speed up digestion of lipids and bile neutralises acid related for the stomach

Goes into small intestines with releases protease lipase and amylase small food molecules are absorbed into the blood stream by diffusion or active transport

Fluid goes into large intestine where water is absorbed into blood stream

Poo leaves the body

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9
Q

What are the products of digestion used for?

A

To build new carbohydrates lipids and proteins

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10
Q

What is the glucose produced in digestion used for ?

A

Respiration

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11
Q

What do enzymes do ?

A

Catalyse ( speed up and does not get used up) chemical reactions

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12
Q

What are enzymes ?

A

Large protein molecules that has an active site where the substrate attaches to

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13
Q

Explain the lock and key 🔐 model and how Enzymes work

A

An active site has to be complimentary in order for them to be able to catalyse a reaction

Enzyme breaks down substrate to form new products

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14
Q

What are enzymes ?

A

Specific

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15
Q

What are proteins broken down by? Where do we find it?

A

Protease - stomach small intestine and pancreas

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16
Q

What happens when we digest proteins ?

A

The proteases convert the proteins back to the individual amino acids which are absorbed by the blood stream

Then they join together in a different order to make human proteins

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17
Q

What is starch?

A

A chain of glucose molecules

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18
Q

What is starch broken down by?

A

Amylase

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19
Q

What are carbs broken down by? Which enzyme ?

A

Carbohydrases

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20
Q

What happens when starch is digested?

A

The chain of glucose is broken down by amylase to produce simple sugars

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21
Q

Where is amylase found ?

A

Saliva in mouth and pancreatic fluid

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22
Q

What do lipid molecules consist of ?

A

Molecules of glycerol attached to 3 fatty acids

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23
Q

What are lipids digested by ? Found in ?

A

Lipase and it separates the glycerol and 3 fatty acids

Pancreas and small intestine

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24
Q

Where is bile made? What does it do to lipids (fats )

A

In the liver and stored in gall bladder

Speed up digestion but is not an enzyme

Bile emulsifies large lipid droplets into smaller lipid droplets

This increase the SA of lipids and increases the rate of breaking it down

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25
Q

What is Bile’s PH? What does it allow it to do?

A

Alkaline - neutralises stomach acid creating alkaline conditions in small intestine increasing the rate of digestion of lipids

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26
Q

Why do enzymes activity increase and we increase temp?

A

Increase KE so there are more collisions of active sites and substrates per second

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27
Q

What is the optimum temperature for enzymes?

A

The best temp that causes enzymes to work at it’s fastest possible rate max frequency of successful collisions of active sites and substrates (37.4•c)

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28
Q

Why at very high temperatures do enzymes stop 🛑 working?

A

Because they start to denature deforming the active side and substrates no longer making the complimentary

Enzyme molecules vibrate - changes shape

Enzyme can no longer catalyse reaction

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29
Q

What happens if we make a optimal PH of an enzyme more acidic or alkaline ? Why?

A

Activity drops to 0 - active site denatures if conditions are too acidic or alkaline

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30
Q

LOOK AT MIND MAP FOR TITRATION CALCULATIONS 🫗

A
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31
Q

Explain the effect the PH in Amylase practical ?

A

Place one drop of iodine solution onto the well of the spotting tile

Will turn from orange to blue-black if starch is present

Add starch solutions into test tubes

Amylase and buffer solution - PH 5

2cm^3

Label and place them in a water bath of 30•c and leave them for 10 minutes to reach the correct temp

Combine all the tests tubes and stir with glass rod them immediately but back in water bath and start timing it with stop watch

After 30 seconds add drop of solution using a stirring rod into the drops of iodine in the spotting tiles

The iodine should turn blue-black and that indicates that starch in present

Continue keeping tube in water bath until the iodine stays orange. This indicates that there is no starch present - reaction is complete

Record the time taken for reaction to finish for your results

Replete using different PH buffers like 7 and 8

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32
Q

What are the problems with the PH practical for amylase ?

A

Taking PH every 30 seconds so we have an approximate time until reaction is compete

We are looking when the iodine stops going orange to blue-black which may be hard to see as it’s gradual

Ask several people and decide if its complete

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33
Q

Describe the food test practice

A

Grind food using mortar and pestle and make a paste using distilled water

Add food to beakers and add distilled water and still chemicals in food allowing the food to dissolve in the water

Filter solution to remove suspended food particles

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34
Q

How do we test for starch ?

A

But food solution in test tube - 2cm^3

Add iodine - orange

Iodine will turn orange to blue-black

If there is no starch present iodine will stay orange

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35
Q

How do we test for sugars ?

A

Add food solution in test tube
Add Benedict solution and place test tube 🧪 in a Becker with hot water and leave it for 5 mins

If sugars are present the Benedict’s solutions should turn blue to green yellow then brick-red 🧱

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36
Q

How can we tell the sugar concentration in a food solution?

A

Green - little sugar
Yellow - a bit more
Red - a lot

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37
Q

What type of sugars does the Benedict solution only work on?

A

Reducing sugars like glucose

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38
Q

What will the Benedict’s solution not work on?

A

Non-reducing sugars - sucrose

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39
Q

How do we test for proteins ?

A

Add 2cm^3 of food solution then Biuret solution - blue to lilac if protein is present

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40
Q

How do we test for lipids ? Why do we not filter it? What do we do instead?

A

Make food into paste but don’t filter through as lipid molecules can stick to filter paper

Add ethanol and food solution and gently shake it

Does from with to milky and cloudy

Important that no naked flames are present

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41
Q

How is the small intestine adapted for absorption?

A

Very long - large SA for absorption of molecules of products of digestion

Interior is covered with millions of villi which increased SA

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42
Q

How is the villi adapted for absorption of molecules in digestion ? (Small intestine )

A

Covered in microvilli- increases SA allowing more molecules to be absorbed at a time

Good blood supply so the villi rapidly removes products of digestion - increased concentration gradient

Has thin membrane to ensure a short diffusion path

LEADING TO A RAPID RATE OF DIFFUSION

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43
Q

What is produces when amylase breaks down starch ?

A

Sugar (glucose) and maltose

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44
Q

What does mesophyll do in plants ?

A

Helps plant photosynthesis

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45
Q

What is epidermal tissue?

A

Tissues that ones the outer surface of muscles

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46
Q

Give an example of epidermal tissue

A

Skin and waxy covering of plants

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47
Q

What are the 2 types of tissue ?

A

Epidermal and muscular

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48
Q

What does the glandular tissue do ?

A

Produces digestive juices that breaks down stomachs food

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49
Q

What does the muscular tissue do ?

A

Churns food around

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50
Q

What are the 3 tissues that make the stomach?- organ

A

Epithermrel glandular and muscular

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51
Q

What does the liver do ?

A

Produce bile

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52
Q

What type of molecule is an enzyme?

A

Protein

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53
Q

What are the positives of enzymes

A

Saves costs as can be used in low temperatures

Doesn’t get used up

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54
Q

What do we use if there are any molecules that cannot be absorbed by the villi by diffusion?

A

We use active transport

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55
Q

What are the 4 type of blood cells ?

A

Plasma
Platelets
Red blood cells
White blood cells

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56
Q

Explain the red blood cells

A

Has a biconcave shape to calmly oxygen - no nucleus - high surface area to carry oxygen

Job to carry oxygen

Has haemoglobin - red pigment- binds with oxygen - oxyhemoglobin

In tissues oxyhemoglobin unbinds with oxygen- releasing oxygen to cells

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57
Q

Explain platelets

A

Small fragments of cells

Helps clots wounds

Stops bleeding and microorganisms 🦠 entering

Lack of this leads to death

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58
Q

What is plasma ?

A

Straw coloured liquid that carries everything in the blood

Amino acids
Proteins
Urea
White blood cells
Antitoxins
RBS
Platelets
Antibodies
Co2

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59
Q

What do white blood cells do ?

A

Defend the body against infection

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60
Q



A
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61
Q

What circulatory system
Do fishes have?

A

Single circulatory system

62
Q

Explain the Circulatory system in fish

A

Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to the gills

Where it connects oxygen and becomes oxygenated which passes into the organs where the where the oxygen diffuses out of the blood and into body cells

Blood returns back into the heart

63
Q

What is the issue with the single circulatory system in fish ?

A

Blood loses a lot of pressure as it passes feed the gills before reaching organs

Meaning that blood travels to the organs relatively slowly- So it cannot deliver great deal of oxygen

64
Q

Explain how human have a double circulatory system 

A

Heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs and get pumped back as oxygenated blood back into the heart

Which pumps the oxygenated blood back into the organs and organs pump deoxygenated blood back to the heart

65
Q

What is the benefit of having a double circulatory system?

A

Because it passes through the heart twice it can travel rapidly through the body cells due to the high pressure-Delivering the oxygen that the body needs

66
Q

Describe how blood is pumped through the heart

A

Deoxygenated blood Is Pumped into the vena cava into the right atrium which contracts

Which pushes the blood through the into the right ventricle which contracts

pushing the blood out of the pulmonary artery out of the heart

and blood flow to the organs and returned as oxygenated blood to the pulmonary vein

And the blood is pumped to the left atrium which contracts

pushing it through the left ventricle which contracts

and the oxygenated blood is flowing out of the aorta 🫀 

67
Q

What are valves

A

Valves are things that make sure blood flows in the right direction prevent it flowing backwards

68
Q

What is the heart 

A

Organ that pumps blood around the body made up of muscle tissue

69
Q

Where is the heart pacemaker located?

A

Right atrium

70
Q

What is a pacemaker?

A

A group of cells that produce electrical impulses making your muscles contract

71
Q

What do artificial pacemakers do?

A

It’s a device implanted in your right atrium and it produces an electrical current that keeps the heart beating regularly

72
Q

What are the three different types of blood vessels?

A

capillaries
arteries
veins

73
Q

What do arteries do

A

carry blood away from the heart

74
Q

What do capillaries do

A

Exchange of materials at the tissue

75
Q

what do veins do?

A

Carry blood into the heart

76
Q

What are arteries properties?

A

Contain elastic fibres as they have to pump high-pressure blood out of the heart- strong

Wall is thick compared to the size of the lumen

Elastic fibres allow them to spring back



77
Q

What are the capillaries properties?

A

Arteries branch out into capillaries

Capillaries are only one cell thick- thin membrane Decreases distance for diffusion

Carry blood really close to every cell to body to exchange substances

Has permeable also substance can diffuse in and out

Supply food and oxygen

takes away is to be like CO2

Small lumen contains a nucleus



78
Q

What are the properties of Veins?

A

Veins take blood back to the heart

capillaries join up to form veins

they have a large lumen

elastic fibres and

smooth muscles and have valves

Low pressure so I don’t need thick walls like arteries

bigger lumen so blood can flow

Have a valves to keep blood flowing in the right direction and prevent backflow

79
Q

What are the coronary arteries?

A

branch out from the aorta and spread into the heart muscle

80
Q

What is the purpose of the coronary arteries?

A

Provide oxygen to muscle cells of the heart 🫀- used aerobic respiration to provide energy for contraction

81
Q

What is cardiovascular disease?

A

And noncommunicable disease in the heart and blood vessels

82
Q

What happens to somebody with coronary heart disease?

A

Fatty material builds up

causing the Coronary arteries to narrow

this decrease the amount blood flowing through the coronary arteries

Decreasing the Amount of oxygen for the heart

which can lead to a heart attack

Causing the heart to be starved of oxygen leading to death

83
Q

What are the two commons treatments for coronary heart disease?

A

Statins reduce the level of cholesterol in blood- Slows down the rate of fatty material that builds up in the coronary arteries

Use of a stent- Used for people who have coronary arteries fully blocked by fat - Keeps coronary artery open

84
Q

What are the positives of statins?

A

Have been proven to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease- Effective



85
Q

What are the disadvantages of using statins?

A

Have unwanted side-effects- Can cause liver problems

86
Q

What are the positives of using stents?

A

Blood can flow normally through the artery

87
Q

What are disadvantages of using stents ?

A

Will not prevent other regions of the coronary arteries from narrowing - Does not treat the underlying causes of the disease

88
Q

What may be another coronary heart disease?

A

Faulty Heart valves- do not work properly

89
Q

What can faulty heart valves lead to🫀?

A

Faulty valves may fail to fully open

so the heart has to pump extra hard to get blood through

this may cause the heart to enlarge

Or valves could be leaky causing patient for weak or tired

90
Q

How can we solve faulty heart 🫀valves? What may be a disadvantage?

A

We can replace it with a mechanical valve or a pig valve

which can last a lifetime

but increase the risk of blood clots so

patient may have to take anticlotting drugs

91
Q

What may valves from animals lead to?

A

They may not last long so they may need to be replacing

however patients do not need to take anticlotting drugs

92
Q

What is heart failure?

A

When the heart 🫀 cannot pump enough blood around the body

93
Q

What happens to people with heart Failure? 

A

They are donated a heart and lungs

94
Q

What is the issue with donating hearts for heart failure?

A

There is not enough hearts to be donated to treat every patient

Patients must take drugs to stop the blood being rejected by the bodies immune system

95
Q

What’s may be an alternative to being donated a heart?

A

An artificial heart temporary solution while waiting for a heart transplant

96
Q

what do artificial heart increase the risk of?

A

Increase the risk of blood clotting so patients have to take drugs that in thin blood

97
Q

what can keep somebody alive in an emergency if they’re losing blood?

A

Artificial blood if there is no air bubbles can go for a blood transfusion

98
Q

Explain how the lungs help us breathe

A

Humans have two lungs are travels down the trachea - Contains rings of cartilage prevents the trachea from collapsing during inhalation

Trachea split into two smaller tubes called bronchi
Which subdivide into bronchioles and at the end there are air sacs called alveoli- loads

The alveoli is where gases diffuse in an out of the bloodstream



99
Q

What does the trachea contain?

A

Contains rings of cartilage prevents the trachea from collapsing during inhalation

100
Q

Where do gases diffuse in and out of the bloodstream in our lungs?

A

Alveoli

101
Q

Explain how the alveoli is adapted for gas exchange

A

Oxygen in the air diffuses into the blood stream from inside the alveoli

And the cover dioxide diffuses into the alveoli

The millions of alveoli means that the lungs have a high surface area

Alveoli has very thin walls makes diffusion distance very short

Alveoli has very good blood supply keeping its concentration gradient steep 

Once oxygen diffuses into the blood it’s rapidly removed

This make sure that oxygen rapidly diffuses into the blood stream and CO2 rapidly diffuses out of the bloodstream

102
Q

How else can we increase the rate of diffusion of gas exchange?

A

By breathing bring in fresh oxygen

causing alveoli to take the carbon dioxide away

Making the concentration gradient high 

103
Q

What is the key fact of mitosis?

A

It’s extremely tightly controlled

the gene 🧬 in the nucleus tells us when to divide

and when to stop dividing

104
Q

What is cancer

A

Uncontrolled mitosis and growth

105
Q

What does cancer produce?

A

Tumours

106
Q

What are the two different types of tumours?

A

Benign and malignant

107
Q

What is a benign tumour?

A

Growth of abnormal cells which are found in one area-Contained within a membrane

108
Q

Where are benign tumours normally contained?

A

Within a membrane

109
Q

What do you benign tumours not do?

A

They do not invade other parts of the body they stay in one place

110
Q

What do malignant tumours do?

A

They invade neighbouring tissues and move into the bloodstream

111
Q

What are malignant tumour cells classed as?

A

Classed as cancer

112
Q

What do malignant cells do once they’re in the bloodstream?

A

Spread to different parts of the body where they form new tumours - Secondary tumours

113
Q

What are some cancer linked to genetics?

A

Cancer is linked to genetics mean that they’re hereditary and the risk of getting them increases

Breast cancer
prostate cancer
large intestines cancer

114
Q

What are some cancers linked to lifestyle?

A

Smoking – lung cancer

Ultraviolet light – skin cancer- tanning 👙

Alcohol – mouth and throat cancer

115
Q

What Cancer can be caused by the environment?

A

Radon which is a radioactive gas which increases your risk of developing lung cancer

Releases ionising radiation which damages DNA- lead cells to undergo uncontrolled cell division leading to cancer

116
Q

What can a health problem be caused by?

A

Poor diet
levels of stress
working with harmful chemicals

117
Q

What can HPV cause

A

cervical cancer

118
Q

Give an example of a disease doubling up and leading to another

A

Tuberculosis

HIV can damage the immune system causing to TB to be very difficult to fight off

119
Q

Explain how HPV can lead to cervical cancer

A

HPV bacteria can spread to a cell in the cervix leading cervical cancer

120
Q

What can what diseases can be triggered by the immune system?

A

Allergies - the body can be fighting of asthma Body is a attacked by a pathogen which is fights off but is left with an Allergy

121
Q

Give an example how mental illness can be triggered by physical illness

A

Arthritis can lead to people feeling isolated and in pain which can lead to depression

which can lead to you not taking care of yourself hygienically which leads is getting a disease

122
Q

Why could scientists not test on humans the causes of lung cancer? What did they do instead

A

Unethical so it’s closely at peoples lifestyles and habits

123
Q

What is epidemiology?

A

Studying the patterns of diseases and determining the risk factors

124
Q

What did scientists use epidemiology to do?

A

Study lung 🫁 cancer

they saw that people who smoke cigarettes 🚬 and will likely to develop lung cancer ♋️ than those who didn’t

They did this to see if there was a correlation between lung cancer and smoking 🚬

125
Q

How did scientists proved the correlation between lung cancer and smoking ?

A

Plot scattergraph - Number of years as well

126
Q

What does a correlation not prove?

A

The Cause - Just suggests that it may be linked

127
Q

What does scientists do after finding a positive correlation between number of cigarette 🚬 smoke and a risk of lung 🫁 cancer ♋️ ?

A

How cigarettes could cause lung cancer this is called cause mechanism

128
Q

What did scientists discovering the cause mechanism?

A

Cigarette 🚬 smoke contained chemicals which damaged DNA and increase the risk of cancer Carcinogens

129
Q

Why do we expect that smoking increases the risk of lung cancer?

A

Because we have a positive correlation graphs and a cause mechanism

130
Q

What is an issue with sampling?

A

Virtually impossible to interview every single person a see how their day went

so they get a group of people and draw a conclusion about the whole population

May not be representative may be biased people may take less exercise in one town then another - Invalid so we take large number of samples from random people as possible

131
Q

Give an example of noncommunicable diseases

A

Cardiovascular diseases such as coronary heart diseases

Type two diabetes

cancer

132
Q

lifestyle choices that may lead to cardiovascular diseases?

A

A diet high in fat low in vegetables may lead to high levels of cholesterol in the blood- Increases the rate that fatty material build up in the arteries

A diet high in salt may lead to an increase in blood pressure increases the the risk of developing cardiovascular disease

Smoking 🚬

133
Q

What does smoking trigger?

A

Large number of chemicals to be produced which can cause cancers carcinogens

I need to unpleasant symptoms and need to our unpleasant life

134
Q

What can smoking or drinking while pregnant cause?

A

A miscarriage and premature birth- Baby can be born with a low body mass

Could lead a baby to be born with fatal alcohol syndrome-Child to be born with learning difficulties and physical problems

135
Q

What can drinking and access lead to

A

Liver cancer and affect the brain leading to addiction and memory loss

136
Q

What can type two diabetes lead to?

A

Blindness or amputation of a limb

137
Q

What is type two diabetes caused by?

A

Obesity-Access alcohol can be to obesity increasing the risk of type two diabetes

138
Q

Label the cross-section of a leaf

A

Look at phone case 🙀😻👽👾🙀👊🥶

139
Q

What does the upper and lower epidermis do?

A

Transparent still allows light through the photosynthetic cells below

140
Q

What does the waxy cuticle do?

A

Thin and oily layer

Reduces the evaporation of water from the surface of the leaf- Helps prevent the leaf from Drying out

141
Q

What does the stomata do?

A

Tiny paws allows carbon dioxide to enter

and oxygen to leave

controls the amount of water vapour that can pass out of the leaf

142
Q

What are the palisade mesophyll cells?

A

Consists of palisade cells

full of chloroplast

which contain chlorophyll

which is a green substance that absorbs light energy needed for photosynthesis

143
Q

What does the spongy mesophyll do?

A

Full of a air spaces

allow carbon dioxide to diffuse from the stomata

through the spongy mesophyll

to the palisade cells- Needed for photosynthesis

Oxygen diffuses from the palisade cells to the spongy mesophyll to the stomata

144
Q

What does the xylem tissue stem do?

A

dead cells
joints and end to end

and made of lignin

Transports water and mineral ions- Magnesium iron used to make chlorophyll
from the roots to the stem to the leaves

Water can be used for photosynthesis

145
Q

Describe the phloem 

A

Made of elongated living cells

with small pores at the end walls to allow cell sap to flow through

transport dissolved sugars for storage transports both directions

called translocation

Sugars can be used immediately for respiration

146
Q

What is translocation?

A

Movement of glucose and other substances through the phloem

147
Q

What is meristem tissue ?

A

Found in Growing tips

and contain stem cells cells that can differentiate into specific cells- plant tissue

148
Q

Explain transpiration

A

Evaporation and diffusion from the leaves

Evaporation causes a shortage of water so more water is drawn from the xylem vessels to replace it there’s a constant transpiration stream

Water enters food roots water evaporates from leaves

Because there’s more water inside of the plant them in the outside air waterscape Stilleys through the stomata by diffusion

149
Q

What is transpiration as side-effect of?

A

Photosynthesis

150
Q

What are the four things affecting the transpiration rate?

A

Light intensity -the brighter the greater the transpiration rate stomata begins to close when it gets darker so little water can escape as photosynthesis can’t happen in the dark

Temperature -warmer faster transportation as water particles have more energy to evaporate and diffuse out of the stomata

Airflow -stronger wind greater the diffusion the transpiration rate would have a stay just around the leaf

if airflow is poor means that there is a high concentration of water particles diffusion doesn’t happen quickly

Humidity- The dryer is around to leaf the faster

151
Q

Explain how Guard cells are adapted to open and close the stomata 5)

A

Parts have lots of water guard cells will go plump and turgid makes stomata open gases exchange for photosynthesis

If short with water or go flaccid making this tomato close there stops too much water from escaping

Thin out of walls and thicker in the walls make opening and closing work

sensitive to light so they close at night save water without losing it when we can’t do photosynthesis

find stomata on the underside of the leaf lower surface area shaded and cooler less water is lost

152
Q

Which sides of the heart is deoxygenated and oxygenated?

A

Left side is deoxygenated right-sided oxygenated



Biology 🧬 (8 decks)

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