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Biology GCSE > Organisation > Flashcards

Organisation Flashcards

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1
Q

How do cells specialise?

A

Through the process of differentiation

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2
Q

What is a tissue?

A

A group of similar cells that work together to carry out a particular function

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3
Q

What is an organ?

A

A group of different tissues that work together to perform a certain function

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4
Q

What is an organ system?

A

A group of organs working together to perform a particular function

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5
Q

Organ systems work together to make _________

A

Organisms

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6
Q

What are enzymes?

A

Catalysts produced by living things - biological catalysts

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7
Q

What do enzymes do?

A

They reduce the need for high temperatures and only speed up useful reactions

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8
Q

Every enzyme has a _____ ____ with a ____ shape that fits onto the substance involved in the reaction

A

Active site

Unique

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9
Q

What has to fit into the active site of the enzyme?

A

The substrate

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10
Q

How many reactions does each enzyme usually catalyse?

A

One specific reaction

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11
Q

Enzymes need:

A

The right temperature

The right pH

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12
Q

What is meant by an enzyme becoming denatured?

A

The shape of the active site changes so the substrate no longer fits the enzyme meaning it no longer works

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13
Q

What happens to an enzyme if the temperature increases too much?

A

Some of the bonds holding the enzyme together breaks, changing the shape of the enzyme’s active site, meaning the substrate no longer fits - denatured

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14
Q

What is meant by the optimum temperature of an enzyme?

A

The temperature enzymes work best at

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15
Q

What happens if the pH is too high or too low?

A

The pH interferes with bonds holding the enzyme together, changing the shape of the enzyme’s active site, meaning the substrate no longer fits - denatured

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16
Q

What do digestive enzymes do?

A

They break down big molecules (starch, proteins and fats) that are too big to pass through the walls of the digestive system, into smaller ones (sugars, amino acids, glycerol and fatty acids)

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17
Q

Carbohydrase converts _______ into _______ ________

A

Carbohydrates

Simple sugars

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18
Q

What is an example of a carbohydrase and what does it do?

A

Amylase

Breaks down starch

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19
Q

What is carbohydrase produced by?

A

The salivary glands
The pancreas
The small intestine

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20
Q

Protease converts _______ into ____ _____

A

Proteins

Amino acids

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21
Q

What is protease produced by?

A

The stomach
The pancreas
The small intestine

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22
Q

Lipase converts _______ into _______ and ____ _____

A

Lipids
Glycerol
Fatty acids

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23
Q

What is lipase produced by?

A

The pancreas

The small intestine

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24
Q

Where is bile produced and stored?

A

It’s produced in the liver and stored in the gall-bladder

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25
Q

Why can’t enzymes in the small intestine work properly in the stomach?

A

Because the hydrochloric acid in the stomach makes the pH too acidic

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26
Q

What does bile’s alkaline(ness) do?

A

It neutralises the acid and makes the conditions alkaline - enzymes work best in alkaline conditions

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27
Q

How does bile make digestion faster?

A

It emulsifies fat, breaking the fat into tiny droplets, giving a bigger surface area of fat for the enzyme lipase to work on

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28
Q

What factors affect the rate of reactions?

A 
Temperature
pH
Enzyme concentration
Substrate concentration
Surface area
Pressure
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29
Q

What is a limiting factor?

A

Something that prevents a reaction from occurring at optimum rate

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30
Q

What happens in the large intestine?

A

Where excess water is absorbed from food

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31
Q

What does the small intestine do?

A

It produces protease, amylase and lipase enzymes

Soluble food is absorbed out of the small intestine into the blood

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32
Q

What does the pancreas do?

A

It produces protease, amylase and lipase enzymes that is then released into the small intestine

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33
Q

What does the salivary glands do?

A

It produces amylase enzymes in the saliva and moisturise food

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34
Q

What does the stomach do?

A

It mixes food and and pummels it with muscular walls
It produces the protease enzyme, pepsin
It produces hydrochloric acid to: kill bacteria and give the right pH for the protease enzyme to work

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35
Q

What does the liver do?

A

It produces bile and stores carbohydrates

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36
Q

What does the gall-bladder do?

A

It stores bile before it’s released into the small intestine

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37
Q

Where is excess water is absorbed from the food?

A

In the large intestine

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38
Q

What do you use to test for sugars (glucose)?

A

Benedict’s solution

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39
Q

What would happen to the solution when Benedict’s solution is added, if sugar is present?

A

blue –> green –> yellow –> brick-red

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40
Q

What do you use to test for starch?

A

Iodine solution

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41
Q

What would happen to the solution when Iodine solution is added, if starch is present?

A

browny-orange –> bleach or blue/black

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42
Q

What is the Biuret Test used to test for?

A

To test for proteins

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43
Q

What would happen to the solution when Biuret Reagant is added, if proteins are present?

A

blue –> pink/purple

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44
Q

What is used to test for lipids?

A

Sudan III stain solutions

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45
Q

What does Sudan III do to lipids?

A

It stains them

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46
Q

What would happen to the solution when Sudan III is added, if lipids are present?

A

The mixture will separate into 2 layers

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47
Q

What part of the lungs does air split into?

A

From the trachea into the bronchi, into bronchioles, into alveoli

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48
Q

What is the alveoli surrounded by?

A

Network of blood capillaries

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49
Q

What diffuses between the alveoli and blood?

A

Oxygen diffuses out of the lungs into the blood

CO2 diffuses out of the blood into the lungs to be breathed out

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50
Q

What diffuses between body cells and the blood?

A

CO2 diffuses out of the cells into the blood

Oxygen diffuses out of the blood into the cells

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51
Q

What is the circulatory system made of?

A

The heart, blood vessels and blood

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52
Q

What is pumped out of the right ventricle and to where?

A

Deoxygenated blood to the lungs

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53
Q

What is pumped out of the left ventricle and to where?

A

Oxygenated blood to the organs of the body (not lungs)

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54
Q

Why does the heart have valves?

A

To make sure that blood flows in the right direction, to stop backflow

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55
Q

What type of blood flows in through the vena cava?

A

Deoxygenated

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56
Q

What type of blood flows in through the pulmonary vein?

A

Oxygenated

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57
Q

What type of blood flows out through the pulmonary artery?

A

Deoxygenated

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58
Q

What type of blood flows out through the aorta?

A

Oxygenated

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59
Q

Where does the blood go to through the pulmonary artery?

A

The lungs

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60
Q

Where does the blood go to through the aorta?

A

The rest of the body

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61
Q

What happens when the ventricles contract?

A

It forces the blood into the pulmonary artery and the aorta, out of the heart

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62
Q

What supplies the heart with oxygenated blood?

A

The coronary arteries

63
Q

What are pacemakers?

A

They are a group of cells in the right atrium that regulate the beating of the heart

64
Q

How do pacemakers make the heart beat?

A

They produce a small electric impulse which spreads to the surrounding muscle cells

65
Q

What is an artificial pacemaker and what does it do?

A

A small device that is implanted under the skin and has a wire going to the heart
It produces an electric current to keep the heart beating regularly

66
Q

What are the 3 blood vessels?

A

Arteries
Capillaries
Veins

67
Q

What do arteries do?

A

They carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body’s cells

68
Q

Why are the artery walls strong and elastic (muscular)?

A

Because the blood is pumped out at a high pressure

69
Q

What are the walls of the artery like compared to the lumen (hole in the middle)?

A

They are thick compared to the size of the lumen

70
Q

How do the arteries smooth out blood flow?

A

They contain elastic fibres that allow them to stretch and recoil

71
Q

What makes arteries strong?

A

They contain thick layers of muscle

72
Q

What do capillaries do?

A

They connect an artery to a vein and are very small

They carry blood very close to every cell in the body to exchange substances with them

73
Q

Why do capillaries have permeable walls?

A

So substances can diffuse in and out

74
Q

Why are the walls of capillaries one cell thick?

A

It increases the rate of diffusion by decreasing the distance over which it occurs

75
Q

What do the veins do?

A

They carried deoxygenated blood from the body’s cells to the heart

76
Q

Why don’t the walls of the veins have to be that thick?

A

Because the blood is at low pressure

77
Q

Why do veins have a big lumen?

A

To help the blood flow, despite the low pressure

78
Q

What do valves in the heart do?

A

They make sure the blood is going the right way and to prevent backflow

79
Q

What is the function of red blood cells?

A

To carry oxygen from the lungs to all the cells in the body

80
Q

Why do red blood cells have a large surface area?

A

For absorbing oxygen

81
Q

Why do red blood cells not have a nucleus?

A

To have more room to carry more oxygen

82
Q

What do red blood cells contain?

A

Haemoglobin

83
Q

What does haemoglobin do?

A

Bind to oxygen in the lungs to form oxyhaemoglobin and in body tissues, the oxyhaemoglobin splits into oxygen and haemoglobin to release oxygen to the cells

84
Q

What is the function of white blood cells?

A

To protect the body from disease by fighting microbes

85
Q

What do white blood cells do to protect the body?

A

Phagocytes engulf microorganisms

Lymphocytes produce antibodies and antitoxins

86
Q

What is the function of platelets and why?

A

To help the body clot - scabs - to stop blood pouring out and stop microorganisms entering

87
Q

What is plasma and what does it do?

A

Its the bodily fluid that surrounds blood cells and carries them around as it flows through the blood vessels

88
Q

What does the plasma carry?

A

Red and white blood cells, platelets, nutrients, hormones, antibodies, antitoxins, proteins, carbon dioxide and urea

89
Q

What is coronary heart disease?

A

When the coronary arteries that supply blood to the muscle of the heart gets blocked by layers of fatty material building up

90
Q

What happens when the coronary arteries get blocked by layers of fatty material?

A

The arteries become narrow, blood flow restricted and lack of oxygen to heart muscle - can cause heart attack

91
Q

What are stents?

A

Tubes that are inserted inside arteries

92
Q

What so stents do?

A

They keep the arteries open, making sure blood can pass through to the heart muscles

93
Q

Advantages of stents:

A

Lowers risk of heart attack
Effective for long time
Recovery from surgery is quick

94
Q

Disadvantages of stents:

A

Risk of complications during surgery
Risk of infection from surgery
Risk of developing a blood clot near the stent

95
Q

What can too much cholesterol in the blood cause?

A

Fatty deposits to form inside arteries

96
Q

What are statins and what do they do?

A

Drugs that reduce the amount of ‘bad’ cholesterol in the blood - slows down rate of fatty deposits forming

97
Q

Advantages of statins:

A

Reduces risks of strokes, heart attacks and coronary heart disease
They can increase the amount of beneficial cholesterol in the blood while reducing ‘bad’ cholesterol

98
Q

Disadvantages of statins:

A

Long-term drug that must be taken regularly
Can cause negative side-effects which can be serious
The effect isn’t instant, it takes time

99
Q

Advantages of heart transplant:

A

It works better

You have a better quality of life

100
Q

Disadvantages of heart transplant:

A

Major surgery required
Anti-rejection drugs are needed
There is a shortage of donors

101
Q

What are artificial hearts?

A

They are mechanical devices that pump blood for a person who’s heart has failed

102
Q

What is the main advantage of using artificial hearts?

A

They’re less likely to be rejected by the body’s immune system than a donor heart - body doesn’t recognise as foreign

103
Q

What are disadvantages of using artificial hearts?

A

Surgery can lead to bleeding and infection
They don’t work as well as real ones
Parts could wear out or the electric motor could fail
Blood doesn’t flow as smoothly, can lead to blood clots and strokes - have to take drugs to thin their blood to make sure this doesn’t happen - these drugs can cause problems with can cause problems with bleeding if hurt

104
Q

What can cause valves to be damaged or weakened?

A

Heart attacks, infection or old age

105
Q

What does valve damage cause?

A

It won’t open properly
May become leaky allowing blood to flow in both direction - blood doesn’t circulate effectively - cells won’t have enough oxygen

106
Q

How can severe valve damage be treated?

A

By replacing the valve - biological and mechanical

107
Q

What does artificial blood do?

A

Replaces lost volume of blood

108
Q

When is artificial blood used?

A

When someone loses a lot of blood

109
Q

How does artificial blood help a patient?

A

It may keep them alive long enough for them to produce new blood cells

110
Q

What does the patient need if they can’t create red blood cells quickly enough?

A

A blood transfusion

111
Q

Communicable diseases are …

A

spread from person to person or between animals and people

112
Q

Non-communicable diseases …

A

cannot be spread between people or animals and people

113
Q

Factors that affect health and diseases:

A

Good balanced died or not
Amount of stress
Life situation
Any other diseases

114
Q

What diseases can smoking cause and how?

A

Cardiovascular disease, lung disease, lung cancer

Damages walls of arteries and cells in lung’s lining

115
Q

What diseases can drinking too much alcohol cause and how?

A

Liver disease and brain function

Damage nerve cells - causes brain to lose volume

116
Q

What is cancer?

A

An uncontrollable growth and division that is because of of changes that occur to the cells that results in the formation of a tumour

117
Q

What is a benign tumour?

A

When the tumour grows until there’s no more room - stays in one place rather than invading other tissue

118
Q

What is a malignant tumour?

A

When the tumour grows and spreads to neighbouring healthy tissues. Cells can break off and travel to other parts of the body via the blood. These malignant cells then invade healthy tissues elsewhere in the body to form secondary tumours

119
Q

What are some risk factors of developing cancer?

A

Smoking, obesity, UV radiation, Viral infection

Genetics

120
Q

What tissues make up plant leaves?

A

Epidermal Tissue
Palisade Mesophyll Tissue
Spongy Mesophyll Tissue

121
Q

What tissues make up plant stems?

A

Xylem & Phloem

Meristem Tissue

122
Q

What does the epidermal tissues do?

A

They cover the leaf with a waxy cuticle that reduces water loss by evaporation and act as a barrier to disease causing organisms

123
Q

Why is the upper epidermis transparent?

A

So that light can pass through to the palisade layer

124
Q

What is the job of the palisade layer and what are it’s adaptations for this job?

A

To carry out photosynthesis
It’s near the top of the leaf, cells shaped so easily packed together and have lots of chlorophyll - absorb max amount of sunlight

125
Q

Why does spongy mesophyll cells have air gaps between them?

A

So CO2 can enter and O2 can leave the leaf easily

126
Q

What are some adaptations of spongy mesophyll tissue?

A

The calls have a more rigid shape, have air gaps between the cells and contain a lot of chlorophyll to carry out photosynthesis

127
Q

What do guard cells do and how?

A

Control the opening and closing of the stomata by changing the water content
When full, the stomata open. When empty, the stomata close

128
Q

What is the stomata?

A

Small holes on the underside of the leaf

129
Q

What does the stomata do?

A

Allows gas and water vapour to enter and exit the leaf

130
Q

What are phloem tubes made of?

A

Living elongated cells

131
Q

Why do phloem cells have small pores in the end of the walls?

A

To allow cell sap to flow through

132
Q

What do phloem tubes do?

A

They transport food substances (dissolved sugars) from where they are produced in the leaves to the rest of the plant for storage

133
Q

What way does transport go in the phloem tubes?

A

Both directions

134
Q

What are xylem tubes made of?

A

Dead cells, joined together, end to end, with no end walls between them, and a hole down the middle

135
Q

What do xylem tubes do?

A

They carry mineral ions and water from the roots to the stem and leaves

136
Q

What is the movement of water through the xylem called?

A

The transpiration stream

137
Q

What is transpiration caused by?

A

The evaporation and diffusion of water from a plant’s surface

138
Q

What does evaporation at the leaves cause?

A

A slight shortage of water in the leaf, so more water is drawn from the rest of the plant, e.g. roots, to replace it

139
Q

Why is there a constant transpiration stream of water through the plant?

A

Because as water evaporates, more water is drawn up from the roots

140
Q

Why does the water escape through the stomata?

A

Because of diffusion - there is more water inside the plant than in the air outside

141
Q

How many guard cells is each stomata surrounded by?

A

2

142
Q

Why does the stomata close at night?

A

It’s sensitive to light and close to save water at night, without losing out on photosynthesis

143
Q

How come less water is lost on the underside of the plant than if the stomata were on the top of the leaf?

A

The lower surface of a leaf is shaded and cooler

144
Q

4 factors that affect transpiration rate:

A

Light Intensity
Temperature
Air Flow
Humidity

145
Q

Relationship between light and the transpiration rate:

A

The brighter the light, the faster transpiration occurs

146
Q

Relationship between temperature and the transpiration rate:

A

The warmer it is, the faster transpiration occurs

147
Q

Relationship between air flow and the transpiration rate:

A

The better the air flow, the greater the transpiration rate

148
Q

Relationship between humidity and the transpiration rate:

A

The drier the air around the leaf, the faster transpiration occurs

149
Q

How does more light cause an increase in transpiration?

A

The stomata are triggered to open in light - more water leaves through the stomata

150
Q

How does a higher temperature cause an increase in transpiration?

A

When warm, particles have more energy to evaporate and diffuse out of the stomata

151
Q

How does a good air flow cause an increase in transpiration?

A

Water vapour around the leaf is swept away - low concentration of water outside - diffusion happens quickly

152
Q

How does a bad air flow cause an decrease in transpiration?

A

Water vapour surrounds the leaf - high concentration of water outside - diffusion very slow

153
Q

How does a a humid atmosphere cause an decrease in transpiration?

A

There is a lot of water outside the leaf - not much of a concentration gradient - less diffusion

Biology GCSE (7 decks)

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