option B

Question 1

Define personality

Answer 1

the relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguishes them from other people, making them unique but at the same time permit a comparison between individuals

Question 2

Discuss social learning theory and personality

Answer 2

Human behaviour is a function of social learning and the situation

Individual behaves how he learned to behave, consistent with environmental constraits

Primary methods in which individuals learn:
Modeling/immitative behaviour - learning through observation
Social reinforcement - based on the notion that rewarded behaviours are likely to be repeated

Bandura´s 4 principles of social learning:
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation

Question 3

Discuss the interactionist approach to personality

Answer 3

our behaviours are based on inherent traits that we adapt to the situation we are in. So behaviour changes as a result of manipulation on environment B=f(P,E)

B-behaviour E-Environment P-personality

Question 4

Issues associated with measuring personality

Answer 4

Interviews
questions or interpretation of drawings
questionnaires are limited here you can uncover other issues
lower reliability than questionnaires because interviwer has to interpret answers
expensive and time consuming

Questionnaires
common
self-report
cheap and easy
fairly reliable and used anywhere
produces considerable amount of data for analysis

Observing behaviour
person is more likely to operate naturaly
very expensive and time consuming
Low validity
difficult to interpret behaviour because the participant might know they are being watched

act different to try to fit certain criteria (bias)
evidence is too general personality can´t be predicted
Ethical issues: all data must be confidential

Question 5

Trait approach theory

Answer 5

traits-innate enduring personality characteristics that allow behaviour to be predicted

3 assumptions
Tendencies to behave in a certain way are stable and unchanging over time
Behaviour tendencies are the same in different situations
Each person has a unique combination of these dispositions

Question 6

Define Motivation

Answer 6

The internal mechanism and external stimuli which arouse and direct our behaviour

Question 7

Types of motivation

Answer 7

Intrinsic-persue an activity for its own sake, the pride and satisfaction they achieve regardless of external efforts

Extrinsic: stems for other people through positive or negative reinforcement, can come from tangeable rewards

Question 8

Discuss issues associated with the use of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators in sports and exercise

Answer 8

Extrinsic rewards influence intrinsic motivation
extrinsic rewards seen as controlling of behaviour
Extrinsic rewards providing information about their level of performance
Extrinsic rewards enhance intrinsic motivation when the reward provides positive information with regard to the performer´s level of competence

Question 9

Atkinson´s model of achievement motivation

Answer 9

motivation is a balance between the motive to achieve success and the motive to avoid failure

Motive to acieve success * probability of success = approach success with the emtional reaction of focusing on pride of success

Motive to avoid failure * incentive value of success = avoid failure Emotional reaction of focusing on shame of failure

Achievement behaviour: seek out achievement situations, look for challenges, enhance performance

Achievement motivation = the desire to succeed -fear of failure

Question 10

Define Arousal

Answer 10

A general physiological and psychological activation varying on a continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement

Question 11

Describe the theoretical approaches to arousal

Answer 11

Drive reduction theory (linear positive correlation between arousal and performance) - depends on the precision of the sport and difficulty of the task, also how the individual deals with arousal

Inverted-U hypothesis (there is a zone of optimal arousal parabola para baixo) it can shift in the x axis depending on the complexity of the task (simple is more to the right)

Catastrophy theory (half of parabola up than starts to stagnate a litthe and drops dramatically) - predicts rapid decline in performance resulting from high cognitive anxiety and increasing somatic anxiety

Performance = y arousal = x

Question 12

Discuss the emotions that may influence an athlete´s performance or experience in a physical activity

Answer 12

positive emotions - excitement, relief and pride (can be bad)
Negative emotions - anger, guil, shame, anxiety and boredom (can be good)
positive mood: more likely to prime us to remember positive previous outcomes and increases confidence
Negative mood: prime us to remember negative memories of past failures, reducing confidence and excitment

Question 13

Define Anxiety

Answer 13

an emotional state, similar to fear, associated with arousal and accompanied by feeling of nervousness and apprehension

Question 14

Cognitive anxiety

Answer 14

thoughts, nervousness, apprehension or worry that a performar has about their lack of ability to complete a task

Question 15

Somatic anxiety

Answer 15

physiological responses to a situation where the performer feels that they may not cope (increase Hr, sweaty palms, muscle tension)

Question 16

State anxiety

Answer 16

anxiety felt in a particular situation they experience as threatning
Elevated level before beginning of match or during tense moments like penalties
Low during the game

Question 17

Trait anxiety

Answer 17

the stable tendency to attend to, experience, and report negative emotions such as fears, worries and anxiety accross many situations. Part of the personality dimension of neuroticism vs emotional stability

Question 18

measuring anxiety

Answer 18

Trait anxiety: sport competition Anxiety test (SCAT)

State anxiety: competitive state anxiety inventory-2 (CSAI-2R)

this is subjective and therefore bias

Question 19

Describe the stress process in sports

Answer 19

Definition: substancial imbalance between the demand (physical or and psychological and response capability, under conditions where failure to meet that demand has important consequences.

Causes of stress (environmental demand)

Stress response (person´s reaction)
Arousal, state anxiety, muscle tension, attension changes

Stress experience (Psychological interpretation)
amount of threat perceived

Actual behaviour (outcome)
Physiological symptoms: Increase Hr, breathing rate, blood presure, adrenaline release, perspiration and blood sugar
Psychological symptoms: worry or apprehension, irratability, inability to concentrate, difficulty making decisions, aggression, increase rate of speech

Question 20

Discuss psychological skills training

Answer 20

The systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills
is not just for elite athletes, not just for problem athletes, does not provide quick-fix solutions

3 Phases:
education: Understand PTS: symptoms, causes and effects
Recognize triggers and coping mechanism
Goal: increase self awarness

Acquisition
Learn coping strategies: mindfulness, cognitive-behavioral strategies, grounding exercises, and stress reduction methods
Professional interventions, such as therapy (e.g., Cognitive Processing Therapy or Prolonged Exposure Therapy), may also be introduced.

Practice
Apply coping skills in daily life
Maintain progress with practice and support

Question 21

Goal orientation Theory

Answer 21

how people evaluate competence and define successful accomplishments. Personal interpretation they have about what achievement means to them within a specific task
3 factors determine motivation:
achievement goals: outcome/task oriented goals
perceived ability: high perceived ability of competence low perceived ability of competence
these 2 come together to influence —»

achievement behaviour: performance, effort, persistence, task choice realistic/unrealistic tasks

Ego-oriented: measure success based on beating others and being the best (extrinsic motivation)
Task oriented: measure their success against themselves how well they complete the task

Ego oriented fail and reinforces negativity leading to increased chance of failure
Task oriented failed: learning opportunity develop skills increase success chances

Question 22

Attribution theory

Answer 22

Explains how individuals interpret success and failure focuses on the reasons people give for outcomes and their impact on future behaviour

3 dimensions for classifying attributions
Stability: stable vs unstable (ability/luck)
locus of causality: internal vs external (effort/quality of the opposition)
Locus of control: in one´s control vs out of one´s control (race plan/ weather conditions)

After success: tendency to use internal attributions (effort/ ability)
After failure: tendency to use external attributions (luck, opposition)
This is self serving bias

Learned helplessness: belief that failure is due to factors beyong control, leading to demotivation

Question 23

Outline goal setting

Answer 23

Identifying objectives to guide action and achieve desired outcomes
associated with enhancing self-confidence and motivation

SMARTER goals (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, time, evaluation and review

Types of goals
Outcome: relates to the outcome of an event usually involve comparison with others (winning a race being selected for a team)
Performance: specific product of performance is relatively independent (swimming certain race time jumping a certain hight
Process: relate to the processes that a performer will focus on during the performance (high knees or long stride pattern)

Question 24

Evaluate mental imagery

Answer 24

cognitive process of creating or recreating experiences in the ming without external stimuli

associated with concentration enhancement, self-confidence, skill acquisition, emotional control, practice strategy and coping with pain and injury

External: Individual imagines performing a task from someone else´s perspective (helps refine technique and get overall view of the performance)
Internal: individual imagines performing an action from their own perspective (enhances proprioceptive awarness)

Protocol for imagery interventions:
set specific goals
Use relaxed environment
ensure vividness and controllability (realistic + detailed + focus on success)
tailor imagery to the individual (according to skill level…)
practice regularly
Monitor and evaluate

Question 25

outline relaxation techniques

Answer 25

associated with arousal regulation, reducing somatic and cognitive anxiety

Deep breathing exercises: focusing on slow, deep breaths to calm the mind and body

Progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) involves tensing then relaxing each muscle group in the body, helping reduce physical tension

Biofeedback:use of instruments to measure physiological systems (eg Hr) and feed information back to the athlete. Awarness of these symptoms can assist athletes controlling them

Question 26

Outline self-talk techniques

Answer 26

internal dialouge that performers experience or say to themselves

associated with concentration, attention, cognitive regulation and motivation enhancement

Positive and negative self-talk: encouraging and motivating boosts confidence, reduces anxiety and maintains positive mindset/// critical or self-doubting statements that can harm performance increased anxiety and decreased self-esteem
Instructional self talk: focused on providing specific, task related instructions (keep knees bent 8used to improve technique, skill based sports especially

Thought stopping: negative thought are stooped by use of verbal command such as stop or visual image such as no entry sign