option B Flashcards
Define personality
the relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguishes them from other people, making them unique but at the same time permit a comparison between individuals
Discuss social learning theory and personality
Human behaviour is a function of social learning and the situation
Individual behaves how he learned to behave, consistent with environmental constraits
Primary methods in which individuals learn:
Modeling/immitative behaviour - learning through observation
Social reinforcement - based on the notion that rewarded behaviours are likely to be repeated
Bandura´s 4 principles of social learning:
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
Discuss the interactionist approach to personality
our behaviours are based on inherent traits that we adapt to the situation we are in. So behaviour changes as a result of manipulation on environment B=f(P,E)
B-behaviour E-Environment P-personality
Issues associated with measuring personality
Interviews
questions or interpretation of drawings
questionnaires are limited here you can uncover other issues
lower reliability than questionnaires because interviwer has to interpret answers
expensive and time consuming
Questionnaires
common
self-report
cheap and easy
fairly reliable and used anywhere
produces considerable amount of data for analysis
Observing behaviour
person is more likely to operate naturaly
very expensive and time consuming
Low validity
difficult to interpret behaviour because the participant might know they are being watched
act different to try to fit certain criteria (bias)
evidence is too general personality can´t be predicted
Ethical issues: all data must be confidential
Trait approach theory
traits-innate enduring personality characteristics that allow behaviour to be predicted
3 assumptions
Tendencies to behave in a certain way are stable and unchanging over time
Behaviour tendencies are the same in different situations
Each person has a unique combination of these dispositions
Define Motivation
The internal mechanism and external stimuli which arouse and direct our behaviour
Types of motivation
Intrinsic-persue an activity for its own sake, the pride and satisfaction they achieve regardless of external efforts
Extrinsic: stems for other people through positive or negative reinforcement, can come from tangeable rewards
Discuss issues associated with the use of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators in sports and exercise
Extrinsic rewards influence intrinsic motivation
extrinsic rewards seen as controlling of behaviour
Extrinsic rewards providing information about their level of performance
Extrinsic rewards enhance intrinsic motivation when the reward provides positive information with regard to the performer´s level of competence
Atkinson´s model of achievement motivation
motivation is a balance between the motive to achieve success and the motive to avoid failure
Motive to acieve success * probability of success = approach success with the emtional reaction of focusing on pride of success
Motive to avoid failure * incentive value of success = avoid failure Emotional reaction of focusing on shame of failure
Achievement behaviour: seek out achievement situations, look for challenges, enhance performance
Achievement motivation = the desire to succeed -fear of failure
Define Arousal
A general physiological and psychological activation varying on a continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement
Describe the theoretical approaches to arousal
Drive reduction theory (linear positive correlation between arousal and performance) - depends on the precision of the sport and difficulty of the task, also how the individual deals with arousal
Inverted-U hypothesis (there is a zone of optimal arousal parabola para baixo) it can shift in the x axis depending on the complexity of the task (simple is more to the right)
Catastrophy theory (half of parabola up than starts to stagnate a litthe and drops dramatically) - predicts rapid decline in performance resulting from high cognitive anxiety and increasing somatic anxiety
Performance = y arousal = x
Discuss the emotions that may influence an athlete´s performance or experience in a physical activity
positive emotions - excitement, relief and pride (can be bad)
Negative emotions - anger, guil, shame, anxiety and boredom (can be good)
positive mood: more likely to prime us to remember positive previous outcomes and increases confidence
Negative mood: prime us to remember negative memories of past failures, reducing confidence and excitment
Define Anxiety
an emotional state, similar to fear, associated with arousal and accompanied by feeling of nervousness and apprehension
Cognitive anxiety
thoughts, nervousness, apprehension or worry that a performar has about their lack of ability to complete a task
Somatic anxiety
physiological responses to a situation where the performer feels that they may not cope (increase Hr, sweaty palms, muscle tension)
State anxiety
anxiety felt in a particular situation they experience as threatning
Elevated level before beginning of match or during tense moments like penalties
Low during the game
Trait anxiety
the stable tendency to attend to, experience, and report negative emotions such as fears, worries and anxiety accross many situations. Part of the personality dimension of neuroticism vs emotional stability
measuring anxiety
Trait anxiety: sport competition Anxiety test (SCAT)
State anxiety: competitive state anxiety inventory-2 (CSAI-2R)
this is subjective and therefore bias
Describe the stress process in sports
Definition: substancial imbalance between the demand (physical or and psychological and response capability, under conditions where failure to meet that demand has important consequences.
Causes of stress (environmental demand)
Stress response (person´s reaction)
Arousal, state anxiety, muscle tension, attension changes
Stress experience (Psychological interpretation)
amount of threat perceived
Actual behaviour (outcome)
Physiological symptoms: Increase Hr, breathing rate, blood presure, adrenaline release, perspiration and blood sugar
Psychological symptoms: worry or apprehension, irratability, inability to concentrate, difficulty making decisions, aggression, increase rate of speech
Discuss psychological skills training
The systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills
is not just for elite athletes, not just for problem athletes, does not provide quick-fix solutions
3 Phases:
education: Understand PTS: symptoms, causes and effects
Recognize triggers and coping mechanism
Goal: increase self awarness
Acquisition
Learn coping strategies: mindfulness, cognitive-behavioral strategies, grounding exercises, and stress reduction methods
Professional interventions, such as therapy (e.g., Cognitive Processing Therapy or Prolonged Exposure Therapy), may also be introduced.
Practice
Apply coping skills in daily life
Maintain progress with practice and support
Goal orientation Theory
how people evaluate competence and define successful accomplishments. Personal interpretation they have about what achievement means to them within a specific task
3 factors determine motivation:
achievement goals: outcome/task oriented goals
perceived ability: high perceived ability of competence low perceived ability of competence
these 2 come together to influence —»
achievement behaviour: performance, effort, persistence, task choice realistic/unrealistic tasks
Ego-oriented: measure success based on beating others and being the best (extrinsic motivation)
Task oriented: measure their success against themselves how well they complete the task
Ego oriented fail and reinforces negativity leading to increased chance of failure
Task oriented failed: learning opportunity develop skills increase success chances
Attribution theory
Explains how individuals interpret success and failure focuses on the reasons people give for outcomes and their impact on future behaviour
3 dimensions for classifying attributions
Stability: stable vs unstable (ability/luck)
locus of causality: internal vs external (effort/quality of the opposition)
Locus of control: in one´s control vs out of one´s control (race plan/ weather conditions)
After success: tendency to use internal attributions (effort/ ability)
After failure: tendency to use external attributions (luck, opposition)
This is self serving bias
Learned helplessness: belief that failure is due to factors beyong control, leading to demotivation
Outline goal setting
Identifying objectives to guide action and achieve desired outcomes
associated with enhancing self-confidence and motivation
SMARTER goals (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, time, evaluation and review
Types of goals
Outcome: relates to the outcome of an event usually involve comparison with others (winning a race being selected for a team)
Performance: specific product of performance is relatively independent (swimming certain race time jumping a certain hight
Process: relate to the processes that a performer will focus on during the performance (high knees or long stride pattern)
Evaluate mental imagery
cognitive process of creating or recreating experiences in the ming without external stimuli
associated with concentration enhancement, self-confidence, skill acquisition, emotional control, practice strategy and coping with pain and injury
External: Individual imagines performing a task from someone else´s perspective (helps refine technique and get overall view of the performance)
Internal: individual imagines performing an action from their own perspective (enhances proprioceptive awarness)
Protocol for imagery interventions:
set specific goals
Use relaxed environment
ensure vividness and controllability (realistic + detailed + focus on success)
tailor imagery to the individual (according to skill level…)
practice regularly
Monitor and evaluate
outline relaxation techniques
associated with arousal regulation, reducing somatic and cognitive anxiety
Deep breathing exercises: focusing on slow, deep breaths to calm the mind and body
Progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) involves tensing then relaxing each muscle group in the body, helping reduce physical tension
Biofeedback:use of instruments to measure physiological systems (eg Hr) and feed information back to the athlete. Awarness of these symptoms can assist athletes controlling them
Outline self-talk techniques
internal dialouge that performers experience or say to themselves
associated with concentration, attention, cognitive regulation and motivation enhancement
Positive and negative self-talk: encouraging and motivating boosts confidence, reduces anxiety and maintains positive mindset/// critical or self-doubting statements that can harm performance increased anxiety and decreased self-esteem
Instructional self talk: focused on providing specific, task related instructions (keep knees bent 8used to improve technique, skill based sports especially
Thought stopping: negative thought are stooped by use of verbal command such as stop or visual image such as no entry sign
Outline the term talent
multidimensional concept identified by characteristics that are only partially genetically determined. Involves psychological as physiological, motor, sociological and environemntal factors
Distinguish between
talent identification (TI)
and multidimensional
talent identification and
development (TID) processes.
Talent identification (TI) processes
include:
* subjective assessments
* objective testing that may be physiological
(such as aerobic capacity, anaerobic power,
speed and strength), anthropometric (such
as height, weight, body composition) and
performance-based (such as skill and agility)
Multidimensional talent identification and
development (TID) recognizes that talent
also evolves as a result of an athlete actively
interacting with the environment and having
the resilience to cope with the challenges and
setbacks they encounter. The evolution of talent
can be facilitated through the application of
psychological behaviours that include:
* mental imagery
* realistic goal setting
* effective evaluation of performance/self
evaluation
* self-reinforcement
* training to a high intensity (outside comfort
zone)
* handling failure
* performance arousal and control
Multidimensional TID incorporates the following.
* Monitoring an individual’s progress
and behaviour during a development
programme over time. The ability to adapt
is a key feature of true elite athletes and
is unlikely to be identified by snapshot
observations.
* Balancing weaknesses in one area and
strengths in other areas (for example,
height and speed as well as dedication and
commitment when faced with adversity in
basketball).
* Providing athletes with opportunities to
develop psychological behaviours along
with sport-specific skills over long periods
of time that facilitate progress from one
stage of development to another.
Explain the evolution
of talent for athlete
development
four stages of development that an elite performer is likely to progress through are as follows.
1. Initiation stage
2. Development stage
3. Mastery stage
4. Maintenance (perfection) stage
Different psychological behaviours (such as coach- or parent-led versus self-determined motivation) and sports participation goals (such as enjoyment, skill development or performance mastery) will vary according to the athlete’s stage.
The existence of stages suggests that as athletes encounter opportunities (such as the opportunity to train with a specialist coach, increase in hours of deliberate practice), obstacles (such as an injury) and progressions (such as transition to the next stage of development), many aspects of their performance may become unstable.
The developing athlete uses psychological
behaviours to cope with these unstable periods.
These behaviours are key to continued development of the individual and consistent production of world class performances by elite athletes
Outline talent transfer for
elite athletes changing to a
second sport
Talent transfer is a reduction or cessation of
participation in one sport in order to pursue
another sport that involves similar skills or
physiological requirements.
* It may be prompted by injury, a plateau in
performance, loss of motivation or retirement.
* It may be initiated by the athlete or co
ordinated by a sporting organization.
* It commonly prolongs an athlete’s sporting
career and can lead to greater success than
that in the first sport.
Progress through the stages of development in the new sport is usually rapid because the athlete:
* has the capacity to use psychological
behaviours to respond to challenges
* can exploit existing physiological traits and
motor skills
* has improved motivation.
Examples include changes from sprinting or
cycling to winter sports such as skeleton luge or bobsleigh, and changes from gymnastics to diving or pole vaulting.
Describe self-determination
theory (SDT)
Self-determination theory (SDT) describes
how the level and the amount of energy that
athletes devote to learning activities is a dynamic
continuum characterized by a balance between:
* autonomy—making one’s own decisions
about what we do and being in control of
ourselves and our behaviours (for example,
training because you want to, not because
someone says you should)
* competence—feeling able to accomplish
a task (for example, completing a cross
country run without having to stop for a
rest)
* relatedness—the feeling of a shared
experience with others, of belonging to and
being accepted by a group (for example,
being part of a basketball team).
Describe self-regulated
learning (SRL)
Self-regulated learning (SRL) refers to the
processes that assist learners in managing their own thoughts, behaviours and emotions in order to control their own learning experiences.
SRL encourages athletes to become more
independent in their learning and so enhances
learning outcomes.
Athletes exert this control by planning and
regulating their own actions towards their
learning goals.
There are four interdependent cyclical phases
(Pintrich 2000) through which an athlete manages their progression.
1. Forethought phase (goal-setting and
planning)
2. Monitoring phase (tracking progress and
awareness of current performance in
relation to goals)
3. Control phase (adapting learning strategies
to better complete the task)
4. Reflection phase (evaluating performance
with respect to goals and the effectiveness
of the chosen strategy)
Self-reflections influence athletes’ future
planning/goals, prompting the cycle to begin
again
Discuss the relationship
between self-regulated
learning and motivation in
sports
Motivation is a critical factor in the self-regulated learning framework.
Forethought (planning) phase
* Athletes who do not see value in tasks are
less likely to spend much time setting goals
and planning strategies.
* Higher self-efficacy beliefs increase the use
of self-regulation strategies.
Monitoring phase
* Intrinsic motivation affects level of effort in
completing tasks and use of self-regulation
strategies.
Reflection phase
* An athlete’s causal attributions (factors
athletes attribute to their success or failure)
affect whether or not they choose to engage
in an activity and utilize self-regulation
strategies for similar future activities.
Athletes who are motivated to learn are more
likely to invest the time and energy needed to
learn and apply SRL skills. Similarly, athletes who are able to successfully employ self-regulation
strategies often become more motivated to
complete learning tasks
