Observational Learning Flashcards
Observational (social) learning
Classical & Operant learning refer to the direct experience of
the animal
Bandura – learning processes take place vicariously through
observation
Observational learning : acquisition of new behaviors by
watching and imitating others (models)
Example
You observe an older sibling studying hard. You observe your
sibling’s study behavior being reinforced by good grades and
parental praise. In this case, your own tendency to study hard
might be strengthened.
NOTE: Reinforcement is experienced by your sibling not you
Observational learning - extension of Classical & Operant
learning
Contagious behaviors – instinctive/reflexive
behaviors triggered by seeing someone else do it
Examples?
Fear, yawning, laughter, orienting
Stimulus enhancement – probability of a behavior is
changed because attention is drawn to an item or
location by the behavior of someone else
Particularly related to eating, drinking, mating
Vicarious emotional
conditioning
Fear acquired through observing fearful reactions in
others
Can be acquired in one of two ways
Standard conditioning procedure
Emotional reactions of others serve as the US
Example 1
Mouse (NS) : Observe fear (US) → Fear (UR)
Example 2
Teddy Bear (NS) : Observe happiness (US) → Happy
(UR)
Observational Learning in
Classical conditioning
Higher order conditioning
Emotional reaction in others serves as the CS
Two-step process
Example
Step 1
Fear in Others (CS) : Fearful Event (US) →Fear in Oneself
(UR)
Fear in Others (CS) → Fear in Oneself (CR)
Step 2
Mouse (NS) : Fear in Others (CS) → Fear in Oneself (UR)
Observational Learning in
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning affects how model’s behavior is
transformed into observer’s behavior
Operant conditioning affects acquisition &
performance of the behavior
Example
You observe an older sibling studying hard. You
observe that she spends many hours per week reading
texts, writing assignments, and attending lectures and
tutorials. In this case you have acquired the basic
information for effective study behaviors. However, until
you are old enough to attend university, you will not be
able to translate that acquired knowledge into your
own academic performance.
Two characteristics of
observational learning in operant conditioning.
- Acquisition - Does the person or animal observe the
behavior of the model? - Performance - Does the person or animal begin to
perform the behavior themselves?
Factors affecting acquisition
- Attention - watching the situation
The behavior of the model – cannot learn from
someone if you do not watch them
Consequences of model’s behavior – (e.g., if model’s
behavior is reinforced the observer is more likely to
attend to the behavior) - Reinforcement for paying attention
More likely to acquire behavior if reinforced for paying
attention
e.g., more likely to pay attention to what lecturer is
saying (eye-contact) if reinforced (smile, eye contact) - Reproduction
Need belief in ability to be able to reproduce the
behavior from the mental representation
e.g., lecturer demonstrates how to perform structural
equation modelling – students less likely to pay
attention if they do not believe they can reproduce
lecturer’s performance - Personal characteristics of model
Attend to models who we resemble us
Attend to model’s who respect and admire
Experts (e.g., lecturers who know SEM rather than
students who think they know SEM)
Factors affecting performance
- Reinforcement & punishment
More (or less) likely to perform behavior if model
receives reward (or punishment) for that behavior
E.g., more likely to perform study behavior if you sibling
receives praise from parents and good grades from
university - Consequences of performance for observer
E.g., more likely to perform modelled behavior when
we are reinforced for that behavior - History of consequences for behavioral performance
Experience tells who to model after, when to perform
behavior, and consequences
Behavioral Skills Training
Modeling more effective when combined with BST
Instructions
Modeling
Rehearsal
Reinforcement
Physical Guidance
Application of physical contact to induce an individual
to go through the motions of the desired behavior
Make sure the learner is comfortable and relaxed while
being touched and guided
Determine the stimuli that you want to control the
behavior so that they can be conspicuously present
during guidance
Consider using rules or cue words during guidance so
that they may eventually control behavior
Reinforcement should be given immediately after the
successful completion of the guided response
Guidance should be sequenced gradually from very
easy to more difficult behavior for the learner
Situational inducement
Influencing a behavior by using situations and
occasions that already exert control over behavior
Categories of situational inducement:
Rearranging the surroundings
Moving the activity to a new location
Relocating people
Changing the time of activity
Observational learning in
animals
Most research conducted on rats
Very reliant on observational learning
Where to obtain food
Which foods are safe to eat
How much food to eat
Preference in mating partners
Distinction between humans & animals may be
intent and complete imitation
Humans seem capable (e.g., “Simon says”)
Animal studies have returned mixed results
Imitation
Proposed by Darwin as shared faculty
A lot of anecdotes
“Walking up to the door with a most matter-of-course kind of
air, she used to spring at the half-hoop handle just below the
thumb-latch. Holding on to the bottom of this half-hoop with
one fore-paw, she then raised the other to the thumb-piece
and while depressing the latter, finally with her hind legs
scratched and pushed the doorposts so as to open the
door…Of course in all such cases the cats must have
previously observed that the doors are opened by persons
placing their hands upon the handles, and, having observed
this, the animals forthwith act by what may be strictly terms
rational imitation….First the animal must have observed that
the door is opened by the hand grasping the handle and
moving the latch. Next she must reason, by ‘the logic of
feelings’ – if a hand can do it, why not a paw?” Romanes
Russon & Galdikas (1995)
Observational evidence
Orangutans living with humans in camp designed to
reintroduce them to the wild
Animals learned to imitate human behaviors
Hang hammocks
Build bridges
Use boats
Light fires!!!
Imitation
True imitation
Representation of demonstrator’s action to generate
an otherwise unlikely action that matched the
demonstrator’s
Generalized imitation
Imitated new modeled behavior with no specific
reinforcement for doing so
Used in ABA for children with deficits in ability to learn
through observation
Deliberately reinforce imitation of some behaviors can
lead to generalized tendency to imitate
Aggression
Bobo doll
Replicated aggressive acts
Influenced by consequences
Does violent media make us violent?
Eron et al. – longitudinal study from 1960 to present
Violent media viewed in childhood is significantly correlated
with aggressive and antisocial behavior (even after
controlling for aggressiveness, social class, and education)
But, more current research suggests that influence of
violent media may be short term
