Chapter summarys Flashcards
Summary of Chapter 19
Because our operant behavior in the presence of various antecedent stimuli has been reinforced, punished, or extinguished, those stimuli exert control over our behavior whenever they occur. Many behavioral treatment programs capitalize on existing forms of stimulus control. This chapter focuses on two categories of stimulus control: rules and
goals. A rule is a statement that in a particular situation a specific operant behavior will be reinforced, punished, or
extinguished. Rule-governed behavior is behavior controlled by the statement of a rule or rules, and rules often involve
delayed consequences and lead to immediate behavior change. In contrast, contingency-shaped behavior involves
immediate consequences and is usually developed gradually through “trial and error.”
Rules are especially helpful when (1) rapid behavior change is desirable; (2) consequences for a behavior are delayed;
(3) natural reinforcers for a behavior are highly intermittent; and (4) a behavior will lead to immediate and severe punishment. We learn to follow a rule with delayed consequences because other people provide immediate consequences for
following the rule, and/or an individual provides self-reinforcement for following the rule, and/or our operant/respondent history causes us to immediately “feel good” for following the rule. Rules that describe specific circumstances and
deadlines for specific behavior that will lead to sizeable and probable outcomes are often effective even when the outcomes are delayed. Conversely, rules that vaguely describe a behavior and the circumstances for it, that do not identify
a deadline for the behavior, and that lead to small or improbable consequences for the behavior are often ineffective.
Although rule learning has certain advantages over contingency shaping, rules can lead to insensitivity to contingencies.
An individual may continue responding to a rule even when the contingency on which the rule is based changes.
A goal is a level of performance or outcome that an individual or group attempts to achieve. We distinguish
between behavior goals and outcome goals. Goals are likely to be effective if they (1) are specific; (2) include mastery
criteria; (3) identify the circumstances under which the desirable behavior or outcome should occur; (4) are challenging
rather than do-your-best goals; (5) are public rather than private; (6) include deadlines; (7) include feedback on progress; and (8) if the individual is committed to the goals.
Summary of Chapter 19
Because our operant behavior in the presence of various antecedent stimuli has been reinforced, punished, or extinguished, those stimuli exert control over our behavior whenever they occur. Many behavioral treatment programs capitalize on existing forms of stimulus control. This chapter focuses on two categories of stimulus control: rules and
goals. A rule is a statement that in a particular situation a specific operant behavior will be reinforced, punished, or
extinguished. Rule-governed behavior is behavior controlled by the statement of a rule or rules, and rules often involve
delayed consequences and lead to immediate behavior change. In contrast, contingency-shaped behavior involves
immediate consequences and is usually developed gradually through “trial and error.”
Rules are especially helpful when (1) rapid behavior change is desirable; (2) consequences for a behavior are delayed;
(3) natural reinforcers for a behavior are highly intermittent; and (4) a behavior will lead to immediate and severe punishment. We learn to follow a rule with delayed consequences because other people provide immediate consequences for
following the rule, and/or an individual provides self-reinforcement for following the rule, and/or our operant/respondent history causes us to immediately “feel good” for following the rule. Rules that describe specific circumstances and
deadlines for specific behavior that will lead to sizeable and probable outcomes are often effective even when the outcomes are delayed. Conversely, rules that vaguely describe a behavior and the circumstances for it, that do not identify
a deadline for the behavior, and that lead to small or improbable consequences for the behavior are often ineffective.
Although rule learning has certain advantages over contingency shaping, rules can lead to insensitivity to contingencies.
An individual may continue responding to a rule even when the contingency on which the rule is based changes.
A goal is a level of performance or outcome that an individual or group attempts to achieve. We distinguish
between behavior goals and outcome goals. Goals are likely to be effective if they (1) are specific; (2) include mastery
criteria; (3) identify the circumstances under which the desirable behavior or outcome should occur; (4) are challenging
rather than do-your-best goals; (5) are public rather than private; (6) include deadlines; (7) include feedback on progress; and (8) if the individual is committed to the goals.
Summary of chapter 20
One strategy for capitalizing on existing forms of stimulus control is modeling—demonstrating a sample of a behavior
to an individual to induce that individual to engage in similar behavior. Strategies for doing so include (a) arranging
for peers to be models; (b) arranging for the modeled behavior to be seen to be effective for producing desirable consequences; (c) using multiple models; and (d) combining modeling with instructions, behavioral rehearsal, and feedback
to perform the desired behavior. The combination of instructions, modeling, rehearsal, and reinforcement is called
behavioral skills training (BST).
Another category of antecedent control for producing desirable behavior is physical guidance. Strategies for physical guidance include (a) asking permission to touch the person; (b) appropriate and gentle physical contact to lead the
person through the desired behavior; and (c) a clear statement of what the person is expected to do. A third category of
antecedent control is situational inducement, the influence of a behavior by using situations and occasions that already
exert control over that behavior. Strategies for situational inducement include (a) rearranging the existing surroundings; (b) moving an activity to a new location that will more likely produce that desired activity; (c) relocating people to
increase the desired behavior; and (c) changing the time of an activity
Summary of chapter 20
One strategy for capitalizing on existing forms of stimulus control is modeling—demonstrating a sample of a behavior
to an individual to induce that individual to engage in similar behavior. Strategies for doing so include (a) arranging
for peers to be models; (b) arranging for the modeled behavior to be seen to be effective for producing desirable consequences; (c) using multiple models; and (d) combining modeling with instructions, behavioral rehearsal, and feedback
to perform the desired behavior. The combination of instructions, modeling, rehearsal, and reinforcement is called
behavioral skills training (BST).
Another category of antecedent control for producing desirable behavior is physical guidance. Strategies for physical guidance include (a) asking permission to touch the person; (b) appropriate and gentle physical contact to lead the
person through the desired behavior; and (c) a clear statement of what the person is expected to do. A third category of
antecedent control is situational inducement, the influence of a behavior by using situations and occasions that already
exert control over that behavior. Strategies for situational inducement include (a) rearranging the existing surroundings; (b) moving an activity to a new location that will more likely produce that desired activity; (c) relocating people to
increase the desired behavior; and (c) changing the time of an activity
Summary of Chapter 25
One type of self-control problem consists of behavioral excesses. These can be caused by (a) an immediate reinforcer
versus a delayed punisher for a problem behavior; (b) an immediate reinforcer versus a cumulatively significant punisher for a problem behavior; and (c) an immediate reinforcer for a problem behavior versus a delayed reinforcer for a
desirable alternative behavior.
Another type of self-control problem is a behavioral deficit. This can be caused by (a) an immediate small punisher for a behavior versus cumulatively significant reinforcers; (b) an immediate small punisher for a behavior versus
an immediate but improbable punisher if the behavior does not occur; and (c) an immediate small punisher for a behavior versus a delayed major punisher if the behavior does not occur.
A behavioral model of self-control states that self-control occurs when an individual behaves in some way that
rearranges the environment to manage his or her subsequent behavior. Steps in a self-control program include (1)
specifying the problem and setting goals; (2) making a commitment to change; (3) taking data and analyzing causes of
the problem; (4) designing and implementing a treatment plan; and (5) preventing relapse and making the gains last.
Use appropriate technology to monitor the behavior you wish to change. Take appropriate steps to minimize or prevent
short-circuiting of contingencies when using self-reinforcement.
Summary of Chapter 25
One type of self-control problem consists of behavioral excesses. These can be caused by (a) an immediate reinforcer
versus a delayed punisher for a problem behavior; (b) an immediate reinforcer versus a cumulatively significant punisher for a problem behavior; and (c) an immediate reinforcer for a problem behavior versus a delayed reinforcer for a
desirable alternative behavior.
Another type of self-control problem is a behavioral deficit. This can be caused by (a) an immediate small punisher for a behavior versus cumulatively significant reinforcers; (b) an immediate small punisher for a behavior versus
an immediate but improbable punisher if the behavior does not occur; and (c) an immediate small punisher for a behavior versus a delayed major punisher if the behavior does not occur.
A behavioral model of self-control states that self-control occurs when an individual behaves in some way that
rearranges the environment to manage his or her subsequent behavior. Steps in a self-control program include (1)
specifying the problem and setting goals; (2) making a commitment to change; (3) taking data and analyzing causes of
the problem; (4) designing and implementing a treatment plan; and (5) preventing relapse and making the gains last.
Use appropriate technology to monitor the behavior you wish to change. Take appropriate steps to minimize or prevent
short-circuiting of contingencies when using self-reinforcement.
Summary of Chapter 26
There have been three stages or waves of the application of behavior principles to psychological or mental problems.
The first stage was the straightforward application of behavior principles to those problems. In this stage, there was no
philosophical distinction between public, overt, or external behavior and private, covert, or internal behavior. Behavior
principles were held to be applicable to all behavior—the skin was not considered to be that important a boundary. In
the second wave, it was felt that a clearer distinction needed to be made between overt and covert behavior. Specifically,
it was felt that covert behavior—particularly statements one makes privately to oneself, also known as thoughts, beliefs,
or cognitions, needed to be addressed because they are responsible for much human misery caused by dysfunctional
behavior. This led to the second wave in which the word “cognitive” was added to the term “behavior therapy” to yield
“cognitive behavior therapy” or “CBT.”
Cognitive behavior therapists took several different approaches to dealing with problematic beliefs. One approach
was to aggressively challenge these beliefs through rational argument. Another, more accepted approach was to encourage the client to replace negative self-statements with positive self-statements. These forms of CBT make extensive use of homework assignments, in which clients go through exercises in which they examine and revise their belief systems
as seems necessary and practice making positive self-statements.
Self-instruction and personal problem solving are also considered part of the second wave of CBT. While these
procedures do not focus on changing irrational beliefs, they are concerned with covert processes. A person performing
an old or novel complex task is likely engaging in, or has previously engaged in, verbal behavior at the overt or covert
level that facilitates the accomplishment of that task.
The third wave of behavioral approaches to psychotherapy accepts the view that many behavioral problems result
from dysfunctional cognitive processes and is therefore also considered CBT. However, rather than focusing on changing irrational beliefs, the third wave focuses on mindfulness, nonjudgmental acceptance of one’s thoughts and feelings,
and modifying dysfunctional behaviors stemming from those thoughts and feelings. Two major representatives of the
third wave are acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) and dialectical behavior therapy (DBT).
The chapter concludes with a discussion of how basic behavior principles—the principles covered in Part II of
this text—can account for the effectiveness of the second and third waves of behavioral approaches to psychotherapy
Summary of Chapter 26
There have been three stages or waves of the application of behavior principles to psychological or mental problems.
The first stage was the straightforward application of behavior principles to those problems. In this stage, there was no
philosophical distinction between public, overt, or external behavior and private, covert, or internal behavior. Behavior
principles were held to be applicable to all behavior—the skin was not considered to be that important a boundary. In
the second wave, it was felt that a clearer distinction needed to be made between overt and covert behavior. Specifically,
it was felt that covert behavior—particularly statements one makes privately to oneself, also known as thoughts, beliefs,
or cognitions, needed to be addressed because they are responsible for much human misery caused by dysfunctional
behavior. This led to the second wave in which the word “cognitive” was added to the term “behavior therapy” to yield
“cognitive behavior therapy” or “CBT.”
Cognitive behavior therapists took several different approaches to dealing with problematic beliefs. One approach
was to aggressively challenge these beliefs through rational argument. Another, more accepted approach was to encourage the client to replace negative self-statements with positive self-statements. These forms of CBT make extensive use of homework assignments, in which clients go through exercises in which they examine and revise their belief systems
as seems necessary and practice making positive self-statements.
Self-instruction and personal problem solving are also considered part of the second wave of CBT. While these
procedures do not focus on changing irrational beliefs, they are concerned with covert processes. A person performing
an old or novel complex task is likely engaging in, or has previously engaged in, verbal behavior at the overt or covert
level that facilitates the accomplishment of that task.
The third wave of behavioral approaches to psychotherapy accepts the view that many behavioral problems result
from dysfunctional cognitive processes and is therefore also considered CBT. However, rather than focusing on changing irrational beliefs, the third wave focuses on mindfulness, nonjudgmental acceptance of one’s thoughts and feelings,
and modifying dysfunctional behaviors stemming from those thoughts and feelings. Two major representatives of the
third wave are acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) and dialectical behavior therapy (DBT).
The chapter concludes with a discussion of how basic behavior principles—the principles covered in Part II of
this text—can account for the effectiveness of the second and third waves of behavioral approaches to psychotherapy
Summary of Chapter 27
This chapter provided an overview of behavior treatments for the most common psychological or mental disorders.
These included specific phobias, panic disorder, GAD, PTSD, OCD, depression, alcohol and other substance abuse problems, eating disorders, couple distress, sexual problems, and habit disorders. Perhaps the most important thing to note
from this chapter is the existence of a website promoted by the field of clinical psychology and listing and describing
empirically supported treatments for common psychological disorders. This constitutes a major advance from just a few
decades ago, in which it was generally felt that there was no chance that psychologists could agree on effective psychological treatments. It should also be noted that the agreed-upon effective treatments are almost wholly behavioral. Of all
the treatments receiving empirical support for the various disorders, only one treatment was psychoanalytic—and that
was only given modest research support. Only a few decades ago, almost all treatments for almost all disorders were psychoanalytic. Moreover, almost all of the treatments receiving strong empirical support for the various common disorder
are behavioral treatments. However, it should also be noted that the most prominent behavioral treatments reviewed
contained strong cognitive components. Nevertheless, it should also be noted that a number of empirically supported
behavioral treatments did not have prominent cognitive components. In addition, as discussed in Chapter 26, the cognitive components of CBT and other cognitive treatments are amenable to behavioral explanations for their effectiveness. Despite the impressive amount of agreement by clinical psychologists on empirically supported treatments, it
must be acknowledged that the fact the treatments are empirically supported does not mean that they are anywhere
near being 100% effective. They are, for the most part, only effective statistically speaking—meaning that in many cases
they are only slightly more effective than chance—i.e., only somewhat better, in many cases, than no treatment at all. It
should also be noted that the treatments are a hodgepodge with no clear theoretical underpinning providing guidance
with regard to which treatments should be expected for which disorders, and why one treatment that works for one
disorder doesn’t work for another disorder. Clearly, much empirical and theoretical work is needed to provide a unified
set of treatments resting on a firm theoretical foundation similar to the set of treatments that exists for medical conditions. However, to close on a more positive note, it appears that there are large strides being made toward this this goal
that could not have been imagined just a few short decades ago. There is hope that in the not-too-distant future, treatments rivaling those for curing diseases in the medical profession will be available for the vast majority of psychological
disorders.
Summary of Chapter 27
This chapter provided an overview of behavior treatments for the most common psychological or mental disorders.
These included specific phobias, panic disorder, GAD, PTSD, OCD, depression, alcohol and other substance abuse problems, eating disorders, couple distress, sexual problems, and habit disorders. Perhaps the most important thing to note
from this chapter is the existence of a website promoted by the field of clinical psychology and listing and describing
empirically supported treatments for common psychological disorders. This constitutes a major advance from just a few
decades ago, in which it was generally felt that there was no chance that psychologists could agree on effective psychological treatments. It should also be noted that the agreed-upon effective treatments are almost wholly behavioral. Of all
the treatments receiving empirical support for the various disorders, only one treatment was psychoanalytic—and that
was only given modest research support. Only a few decades ago, almost all treatments for almost all disorders were psychoanalytic. Moreover, almost all of the treatments receiving strong empirical support for the various common disorder
are behavioral treatments. However, it should also be noted that the most prominent behavioral treatments reviewed
contained strong cognitive components. Nevertheless, it should also be noted that a number of empirically supported
behavioral treatments did not have prominent cognitive components. In addition, as discussed in Chapter 26, the cognitive components of CBT and other cognitive treatments are amenable to behavioral explanations for their effectiveness. Despite the impressive amount of agreement by clinical psychologists on empirically supported treatments, it
must be acknowledged that the fact the treatments are empirically supported does not mean that they are anywhere
near being 100% effective. They are, for the most part, only effective statistically speaking—meaning that in many cases
they are only slightly more effective than chance—i.e., only somewhat better, in many cases, than no treatment at all. It
should also be noted that the treatments are a hodgepodge with no clear theoretical underpinning providing guidance
with regard to which treatments should be expected for which disorders, and why one treatment that works for one
disorder doesn’t work for another disorder. Clearly, much empirical and theoretical work is needed to provide a unified
set of treatments resting on a firm theoretical foundation similar to the set of treatments that exists for medical conditions. However, to close on a more positive note, it appears that there are large strides being made toward this this goal
that could not have been imagined just a few short decades ago. There is hope that in the not-too-distant future, treatments rivaling those for curing diseases in the medical profession will be available for the vast majority of psychological
disorders.
Summary of Chapter 29 and Conclusion
Behavior modification has great potential to be used for the good of society. An important responsibility of applied
behavior analysts and behavior therapists is to develop ethical safeguards to ensure that behavior modification is always used wisely and humanely and does not become a new tool in the oppression that has thus far characterized the human
species. A number of certification agencies have been founded and a number of guidelines have been developed to help
ensure that behavior modification is used ethically and effectively. Of all the safeguards discussed, the most fundamental is countercontrol. Perhaps the best way for behavior modifiers to help develop effective countercontrol throughout
society is to spread their skills as widely as possible with appropriate controls in place and to help educate the general
public about behavior modification. It should be difficult to use behavioral science to the disadvantage of any group
whose members are well versed in the principles and tactics of behavior modification.
Summary of Chapter 29 and Conclusion
Behavior modification has great potential to be used for the good of society. An important responsibility of applied
behavior analysts and behavior therapists is to develop ethical safeguards to ensure that behavior modification is always used wisely and humanely and does not become a new tool in the oppression that has thus far characterized the human
species. A number of certification agencies have been founded and a number of guidelines have been developed to help
ensure that behavior modification is used ethically and effectively. Of all the safeguards discussed, the most fundamental is countercontrol. Perhaps the best way for behavior modifiers to help develop effective countercontrol throughout
society is to spread their skills as widely as possible with appropriate controls in place and to help educate the general
public about behavior modification. It should be difficult to use behavioral science to the disadvantage of any group
whose members are well versed in the principles and tactics of behavior modification.
