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Anatomy and Physiology 2B > Nutrition and Metabolism > Flashcards

Nutrition and Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

Weight is determined by_____

A

the bodies energy balance

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2
Q

What type of hormones are involved in appetite control?

A

peptide hormones

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3
Q

What are the two types of appetite controlling hormones?

A
  • Short term

- long term

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4
Q

What are short-term regulators of appetite?

A
  • Hormones that work over a period of minutes or hours
  • Makes you hungry when you begin eating
  • make you satiated when you end a meal
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5
Q

What are the four main short-term appetite regulating hormones?

A
  • Ghrelin
  • Peptide YY
  • Cholecystokinin
  • Amylin
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6
Q

What is the function of ghrelin? where does it come from?

A
  • From the parietal cells of the fundus of an empty stomach
  • Promotes hunger
  • stimulates the secretion of GHRH to absorb nutrients
  • stops an hour after feeding
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7
Q

What is the source and function of peptide YY (PYY)?

A
  • Enteroendocrine cells of the ileum and colon after food is detected in the stomach
  • Signals satiety and terminate eating
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8
Q

What is the source and function of Cholecystokinin (CCK)?

A
  • Enteroendocrine cells in duodenum and jejunum
  • stimulates secretion of bile and pancreatic enzymes
  • suppresses appetite
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9
Q

What is the source and function of amylin?

A
  • Beta cells of pancreas

- inhibits stomach activity and produces satiety

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10
Q

What two peptides inform the brain of how mmuch adipose tissue the body has?

A

Leptin and insulin

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11
Q

Where in the brain do the appetite hormones act?

A

The arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus

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12
Q

How does the hypothalamus act on appetite?

A

Via two different neural networks. One to stimulate and one to inhibit

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13
Q

What hypothalamic peptide is responsible for stimulating appetite?

A

Neuropeptide Y (NPY)

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14
Q

What hormones stimulate neuropeptide Y?

A

Grelin

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15
Q

What hormones inhibit neuropeptide Y?

A

insulin, PPY, and leptin

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16
Q

What hypothalamic hormone is responsible for inhibiting eating?

A

melanocortin

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17
Q

What hormones stimulate melanocortin?

A

Leptin

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18
Q

What hormones inhibit appetite stimulants?

A

endocannabinoids

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19
Q

Hunger is also stimulated by gastric ____

A

peristalsis

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20
Q

A person is obese when they weigh more than ___% above norm

A

20

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21
Q

How is bmi calculated?

A

W/H(squared)

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22
Q

how many kcal/g does alchohol provide?

A

7.1

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23
Q

What is a nutrient?

A

Any ingested chemical used for growth, repair, or maintenance

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24
Q

wHAT ARE THE 6 CLASSES OF NUTRIENTS?

A

Water, Carbs, lipids, protein, vitamins, minerals

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25
Q

What is an essential nutrient?

A

one that cannot be synthesized by the body

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26
Q

What are the main functions of carbs as a nutrient?

A
  • Act as structure for molecules

- serve as a main fuel source

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27
Q

Carb intake influences ___ of other nutrients

A

Metabolism

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28
Q

How many grams of glucose does the brain use a day?

A

120g

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29
Q

What is dietary fiber?

A

all fibrous material of plant and animal orgin that resists digestion

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30
Q

What are the two types of dietary fiber?

A

Soluble and insoluble

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31
Q

What are the benifets of soluble fibers?

A

they decrease LDL levels

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32
Q

What can ow levels of fat intake cause a vitimine deficiency?

A

Because lipid soluble vitamins rely on fat for absorption

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33
Q

What are the four functions of fat?

A
  • Energy
  • Structure of phospholipids and plasma membranes
  • Chemical precursors
  • protection and insulation
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34
Q

Fat should make up less than ___ of daily calorie intake

A

35%

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35
Q

How are lipids transported in plasma?

A

Via lipoprotein complexes

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36
Q

What are lipoprotein complexes?

A

Tiny droplets with a core of cholesterol and triglycerides all with a protein coat

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37
Q

How are lipoproteins classified? how many classifications are there?

A
  • By density

- 4

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38
Q

What are the four lipoproteins?

A
  • VLDL
  • LDL
  • HDL
  • Chylomicrons
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39
Q

Where do VLDL’s come from and what is their function?

A
  • Come from the liver
  • Transport lipids to adipose tissue
  • Become LDL’s after they transport
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40
Q

What two ways does the body use LDL’s

A
  • Absorbed by cells in need of cholesterol

- Digested to release cholesterol for intercellular use

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41
Q

WHat is the function of HDL’s?

A
  • They start as an empty shell
  • The travel through the blood and pick up cholesterol and phospholipids
  • Pass picked up lipids to the liver for elimination
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42
Q

High LDL’s levels correlate with___

A

cholesterol deposition in arteries

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43
Q

RDA for protein is

A

46-56 g/day

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44
Q

How many amino acid are essential?

A

8

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45
Q

How many amino acids are inessential?

A

12

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46
Q

What is net protein utilization?

A

the percentage of amino acids in a protein that the human body uses

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47
Q

What is nitrogen balance?

A

The rate of nitrogen ingested equals nitrogen excreted

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48
Q

When does a positive protein balance occur?

A

When nitrogen ingestion exceeds its excretion

  • Childhood
  • Pregnancy
  • excess growth hormone and sex steroids
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49
Q

When does a negative nitrogen balance occur?

A

During starvation and stress

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50
Q

What are minerals?

A

Inorganic eements that plants extract from soil or water

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51
Q

What are vitamins?

A

dietary organic compounds that are necessary for metabolism

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52
Q

Gross function of phosphorus?

A

Structural component and component of phosphate buffer system

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53
Q

Gross functions of calcium, iron, magnesium, and manganese?

A

they act as cofactors for enzymes

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54
Q

Main function of chlorine?

A

component of stomach acid

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55
Q

What four vitimins can the body synthesize from provitimins?

A

Niacin
Vit. A
Vit. D
Vit. K, pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid produced from bacteria

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56
Q

What is the function of oxidative carbohydrate metabolism?

A

To transfer energy from glucose to ATP

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57
Q

What are the three major pathways of glucose catabolism?

A
  • Glycolysis
  • Anaerobic fermentation
  • Aerobic respiration
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58
Q

WHat is glycolysis?

A

when a glucose is split into two pyruvate molecules

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59
Q

What is anaerobic fermentation?

A

When pyruvate is reduced to lactate in the absence of oxygen

60
Q

What is aerobic fermentation?

A

Pyruvate is oxidized into CO2 and H2O

61
Q

What are the two major co-enzymes in glucose catabolism?

A

NAD+-from niacin

and FAD-from riboflavin

62
Q

What is added to NAD+ to become NADH?

A

2H combinds with one NAD+ and results in on NADH and one H+

63
Q

What is added to FAD to make FADH2

A

2H is added

64
Q

What is the first step of glycolysis?

A

Phosphorylation

65
Q

What is phosphorylation?

A

When ATP donates a phosphate group to a glucose to produce glucose 6-phosphate
facilitated using the hexokinase enzyme

66
Q

What is the next step in glycolysis after Phosphorylation?

A

Priming

67
Q

What occurs during the priming stage of glycolysis?

A

2 ATP’s are used to rearrange G6P (becomes isomerized)

68
Q

What occurs after priming in glycolysis?

A

Cleavage

69
Q

What occurs during the cleavage stage in glycolysis?

A

six carbon G6P is cleaved into three carbon compounds

70
Q

What occurs after the cleavage stage in glycolysis?

A

Oxidation

71
Q

What occurs during the oxidation stage of glycolysis?

A
  • Each 3 carbon compound is oxidized by removing a pair of hydrogen and attaching them to NAD+ to make NADH
  • A phosphate group is added to each carbon fragment
72
Q

What occurs after oxidation in glycolysis?

A

Dephosphorylation

73
Q

What occurs during dephosphorylation?

A
  • Phosphate groups are removed from carbon fragments and added to ADP to make ATP
  • 3 carbon compounds become pyruvate
74
Q

How much ATP is netted from glycolysis?

A

2 ATP per glucose

75
Q

What are the end products of glycolysis?

A
  • 2 pyruvate
  • 2 NADH
  • 2 ATP
  • 2 H+
76
Q

What is the fate of pyruvate after glycolysis?

A

anarobic fermentation or aerobic respiration depending on oxy. availability

77
Q

What are the two principal steps of aerobic respiration?

A
  • Matrix reactions-controling enzymes in fluid of mitochondria
  • Membrane reactions-enzymes bound to membranes of mitochondria
78
Q

What is the first step in the matrix reactions of aerobic respiration? what occurs during this step?

A
  • The transition step

- Pyruvate is prepared to enter citric acid cycle

79
Q

What happens to pyruvate during the transition step?

A

CO2 is removed, NAD+ removes hydrogen atoms and a coenzyme is added to make Acetyl-coenzyme A (Acetyl-CoA)

80
Q

What occurs after the transition step?

A

The citric acid cycle begins

81
Q

What occurs during the citric acid cycle?

A
  • A series of reactions that take starts with acetyl-CoA combinding to make citric acid
  • That citric acid continues to donate carbons producing NADH
  • as well as producing ATP and FADH before it start again
82
Q

The electron transport chain is a ___ reaction

A

Membrane

83
Q

What are the two purposes of membrane reactions?

A

To further oxidize NADH and FADH2 and turn them into ATP

84
Q

What is the mitochondrial electron transport chain?

A

series of

compounds that carry out this series of membrane reactions To further oxidize NADH and FADH2 and turn them into ATP

85
Q

What is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain?

A

Oxygen

86
Q

How are NADH and FADH formed into ATP?

A

The H+ are transported from the matrix space of the mitochondria to a space between the membranes.
-This creates a H+ graident and causes an influx of H+ back into the matrix.
This influx creates energy that produces ATP

87
Q

What is the total amount of ATP generated by one glucose molecule via oxidation of glucose?

A

32

88
Q

What is Glycogenesis?

A

The synthesis of glycogen

89
Q

What stimulates glycogenesis? what occurs?

A
  • Insulin stimulates it

- It occurs by the chaining of glucose monomers

90
Q

What is glycogenolysis?

A

The hydrolysis of glycogen

91
Q

When is glycogenolysis occur and what stimulates it?

A
  • between meals to release glucose

- Glucagon and epinephrine stimulate it

92
Q

Where i the glucose released back into the blood after glycogenolysis?

A

the liver

93
Q

What is gluconeogenesis? where does it occur?

A
  • The synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrates such as glycerol and amino acids
  • occurs in the liver
94
Q

What form is fat stored in the body and where is it stored

A

As triglycerides in adipocytes

95
Q

What is lipogenesis?

A

The synthesis of fat from other types of molecules

96
Q

What molecules can be combined to make fat?

A
  • Amino acids and sugars
  • glucose
  • Acetyl-CoA uses to make fatty acids
97
Q

Lipid metabolism begins with the ____ of ____(stored fats)

A

Hydrolysis of Triglycerides

98
Q

What is the product of triglyceride hydrolysis?

A

Glycerol and fatty acids

99
Q

What happens to the glycerol product of triglyceride hydrolysis?

A

it is added to the pathway of glycolysis to produce ATP only half as much as glucose

100
Q

What happens to the fatty acid product of triglyceride hydrolysis?

A
  • Beta oxidation in the Mitochondrial matrix

- 2 carbon atoms bind to coenzyme a to make acetyl-CoA

101
Q

What is the fate of the acetyl-CoA produced by lipid metabolism?

A
  • Used in the krebs cycle

- metabolized by the liver to produce ketone bodies

102
Q

what must happen first In order for the body to use amino acids directly as fuel?

A

they must first be deaminated

removal of -NH2

103
Q

How is the amino acid used after it is deaminated?

A

it is converted into pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, or an acid in the citric acid cycle

104
Q

What is the metabolic source of ammonia?

A
  • When amino acids are deaminated it is converted into glutamic acid
  • In the live the glutamic acid has its -NH2 removed
  • The NH2 becomes NH3 (ammonia)
  • Liver combines NH3 with CO2 to produce urea
  • Urea is excreted from the body in urine
105
Q

What is an absorptive state?

A

It is a fed state

106
Q

How long does the absorptive state last?

A

about 4 hours after meal

107
Q

What is occuring in an absorptive state?

A

Nutrients are being absorbed and may be used immediately to meet energy needs

108
Q

What is a postabsorptive state?

A

A fasting state

109
Q

What is occuring during a postabsorptive state?

A
  • Stomach and intestines are empty

- Body meets energy needs with stored fuel

110
Q

What is the major source of fuel in an absorptive state?

A

Dietary glucose

111
Q

The major metabolic thrust during an absorptive state is___

A

anabolism of energy storage

112
Q

What happens to amino acids in an absorptive state?

A

they become proteins

113
Q

What happens to glycerol and fatty acids in an absorptive state?

A

They are converted into triglycerides

114
Q

What happens to excess amino acids in an absorptive state?

A

They are deaminated and used for energy or stored as fat in the liver

115
Q

What is the major regulator of the absorptive state?

A

Insulin

116
Q

What is the major etabolic thrust during a postabsorptive state?

A

the catabolism and replacement of fuels in the blood

117
Q

What happens to proteins during a postabsorptive state?

A

The are broken down into amino acids

118
Q

What happens to Triglycerides during a postabsorptive state?

A

They are turned into glycerol and fatty acids

119
Q

What happens to glycogen during a postabsorptive state?

A

it becomes glucose

120
Q

What are the major energy fuel’s in a postabsorptive state?

A

Fatty acids and ketones

121
Q

What is the main regulator of the postabsorptive state?

A

the sympathetic nervous system and glucagon

122
Q

The metabolic rate is defined as-

A

The amount of energy liberated in the body in a given period of time

123
Q

How is metabolic rate directly measured?

A

with a calorimeter

124
Q

How is metabolic rate indirectly measured?

A

a spirometer measuring the amount of oxy a person uses

125
Q

What is the basal metabolic rate?

A

– A baseline or standard of comparison that minimizes the effects of activity, feeding, and hormone levels

126
Q

What is the total metabolic rate?

A

The sum of the BMR and energy expenditures for voluntary activities

127
Q

What is thermoregulation?

A

—the balance between heat

production and loss

128
Q

Why is thermotegulation so important?

A

Because the enzymes in the body depend on an optimal, stable working temp.

129
Q

The best estimate of core body temperature is from the-

A

rectum

130
Q

What is average core body temp

A

99.0-99.7

131
Q

What is shell temperature?

A

The temperature closer to the surface (oral temp, skin temp)

132
Q

Where does most of the body’s heat come from?

A

Exergonic chemical reactions such as nutrient oxidation and ATP usage

133
Q

What are the four ways the body loses heat?

A
  1. Infrared radiation via moving moecules
  2. Conduction of heat from the body to things touching it
  3. convection of heat to moving fluids
  4. Evaporation
134
Q

How is thermoregulation achieved?

A

via negative feedback loops

135
Q

What is the hypothalamic thermostat?

A

The preoptic portion of the hypothalamus that functions as the body’s thermostat

136
Q

How does the hypothalamic thermostat monitor body temp

A

through the monitoring of blood temp via signals from the peripheral thermoreceptors in the skin
-sends signals to appropriate centers

137
Q

What is the heat-loss center of the brain?

A

In the anterior hypothalamus

138
Q

Where is the heat-promoting center of the brain?

A

near the mammillary bodies of the brain

139
Q

What occurs when heat-loss centers activate in response to high blood temp?

A
  • causes cutaneous vasodilation
  • triggers sweating if needed
  • inhibits heat-promoting center
140
Q

What occurs when the heat-promoting center detects low blood temp

A
  • Causes vutaneous vasoconstriction to retain warm blood deeper in the body
  • causes shivering to produce heat
141
Q

How is heat produced longterm?

A

Metabolic rate is increased

142
Q

What is behavioral thermoregulation?

A

the adding or removal of clothing

143
Q

What is fever

A

a normal protective mechanism that should be allowed

144
Q

What are the three main dangers of prolonged heat exposure?

A
  • Heat cramps-due to electrolyte imbalance from sweating
  • Heat Exhaustion-from severe water and electrolyte loss
  • Heat stroke- core body temp rises above 104
145
Q

What occurs if core temp drops below 91 degrees

A

Hypothermis occurs

  • metabolic rate drops so low that body cant maintain heat production
  • causes more tempture drop

Anatomy and Physiology 2B (7 decks)

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