Nursing Research

Question 1

Sources of Data: Primary Sources

Answer 1

Preferred
- research from which the data originated
- these sources are factual and not subject to interpretation by others

Question 2

Sources of Data: Secondary Sources

Answer 2

• created when the original data (primary data) are interpreted or analyzed by another person (not the original researcher)
• “second-hand” accounts

Question 3

Ethical Issues in nursing Research: Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) + Committee Members

Answer 3

• an important duty of institutional review boards (IRBs) is to ensure the rights, safety, and welfare of human research subjects who are participating in research studies in their institutions

Committee Members:
- members designated to review and monitor research that involves human subjects at their institution
- physicians, clinicians, or retail pharmacists are not affiliated w/ the institution are generally not included in an IRB committee (unless they are hired as consultants)
- experienced staff members, not recent graduates, are preferred
- size of the IRB and the # of members depend on the type of institution

Question 4

Vulnerable Populations

Answer 4

Almost all types of biomedical and behavioral research in the US required informed consent

“Vulnerable populations” require special protections and consent requirements:
- infants and children <18 years
- Pregnant women, fetuses
- Prisoners
- Refugees, ethnic minorities
- Persons /w mental or physical disabilities, visual, or hearing impairment
- Persons who are economically disadvantaged

Question 5

Belmont Report

Answer 5

• a report that outlines the important ethical principles that should be followed when performing research that involves human subjects
• issued by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1979)

Question 6

Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment

Answer 6

• an infamous study of 600 African American sharecroppers (1932-1972) in Alabama
• men were all tested for syphilis infection, and those who had positive results were never informed or treated
• because of this study, laws were passed that protect human subjects’ rights and mandate informed consent

Question 7

Informed Consent of Human Subjects

Answer 7

Research subjects must be informed that they have the right to withdraw from the research study at any time w/out adverse consequences or penalty
- there are additional requirements for minors and vulnerable subjects

Components:
- Describe the study; informs he subject of what they are expected to do (e.g., questionnaires, labs)
- describe the risk or the discomforts of participating in the study in the presentation and the future (if applicable)
- Describe the benefits of participating in the study in the present and the future (if applicable)
- Discuss the alternatives to the study; allow enough time for the subject to ask questions
- discuss whether there is any compensation or reward for participation
- discuss how confidentiality and data will be secured to protect the subject’s identity
- give the number and/or email address of the contact for the study so that the subject can contact that person if they have any concerns/problems w/ the study

Question 8

Minors

Answer 8

Any persons who are <18 years of age

Question 9

Emancipated Minor Criteria

Answer 9

• legal court document declaring that the minor is an “emancipated minor”
• active duty in the US military
• legally binding marriage 9or divorced from a legally binding marriage)

Question 10

Consent vs Assent

Answer 10

• consent may be given only be individual who are 18+ years
• a minor (who is not emancipated) as young as the age 7-17 years can give assent to participate in a research study but cannot give consent legally
• child should be assured that they can withdraw from the study after discussing it w/ their parents
• parent or legal guardian must first consent to the minor’s participation in the study
• the researcher needs parental permission to speak w/ the minor in order to obtain assent (the child signs a separate assent form)
• Assent refers to minors because they legally cannot give consent (unless an emancipated minor)

Question 11

Research Terms: Variables (Independent variable + Dependent variable)

Answer 11

• any attribute or characteristic that varies and is measurable

Independent variable —> variable that is being manipulated and is used to influence the dependent variable
- in experimental studies, the research has control over the independent variable

Dependent variable —> result of the manipulation of the independent variable
- Ex: Manipulation by researcher (independent variable) allows a response to manipulation that can be observed and measured (dependent variable)

Question 12

Research Terms: Hypothesis

Answer 12

• an idea (or supposition) that can be tested and refuted
• when conducting research, an examiner tests a hypothesis (or several hypotheses) and can either accept or refute the hypothesis

Question 13

Research Terms: Null Hypothesis (H0)

Answer 13

• opposite of the hypothesis being studied

Ex: If the hypothesis is “corn plans grow faster when exposed to sunlight,” the null hypothesis is “corn plants will not grow faster when exposed to sunlight”

If the research data meets the p-value (p<.01), the results are considered significant (not due to random chance), and the null hypothesis can be rejected. If the null hypothesis cannot be rejected, it means that there is no relationship b/w the variables, and the results are d/t chance

Question 14

Research Terms: Normal curve

Answer 14

A bell-shaped curve

Question 15

Measures of Distribution: Mean

Answer 15

AKA the average
- calculated by adding all of the scores together and dividing it by the total #

Ex: 5, 5, 5, 10, 10 (35/5=7, average is 7)

Question 16

Measures of Distribution: Median

Answer 16

The number that is in the middle when values are arranged from lowest to highest (chronological order)

Ex: 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 14 (mean is 5)

Question 17

Measures of Distribution: Mode

Answer 17

The roost common value or frequently occurring value in a set of scores

Ex: 3, 5, 7, 7, 7, 8, 9, 10, 10 (mode is 7)

Question 18

Research-related Terms: Statistical Significance (a, control group, N, n, significance level definitions)

Answer 18

a —> aka “significance level” or “p-value”
- usually set as either p<.05 or p<.01
* a significance level of p<.05 means there is a 5% probability that the study results are due to chance
* a significance level of p<.01 means there is only a 1% probability that the study results are due to chance
- therefore, a of p<.01 is “better” than a of p<.05

Control group —> subjects in an experiment who do not receive treatment

N —> indicates total size of sample

n —> # of subjects in the group

Significance level —> AKA a or p-value; either set as p<.05 or p<.01

Question 19

Measures of Distribution: Range

Answer 19

The difference b/w the largest and smallest values in a distribution

Ex: 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 15 (15-2, range is 13)

Question 20

Research Designs - Types of Studies: Prospective

Answer 20

Studies done in the present (to the future)
- longitudinal studies are a type of prospective study
- data are obtained in the present and then periodically measured in the future

Question 21

Research Designs - Types of Studies: Retrospective

Answer 21

AKA ex post facto
- studies done on events that have already occurred

Ex:
- chart reviews
- recall of events

Question 22

Research Designs - Types of Studies: Longitudinal

Answer 22

• long-term studies that follow the same group of subjects (or cohort) over many years to observe, measure, and compare the same variables over time
• These are observational studies (there is no manipulation or intervention)

Ex:
- The Framingham Heart Study has tracked the same research subjects (N=5,029) from the town of Framingham, Mass.

Goal: to study the development and identify the risk factors that are associated w/ the development of cerebrovascular disease

Question 23

Research Designs - Types of Studies: Cohort

Answer 23

• groups of individuals that share some common characteristics (e.g., gender, age, job, ethnicity)
• useful for studying the causative factors/risk factors of a disease(s)

Ex:
- Nurses’ Health Study is a longitudinal cohort study that examined the effects of oral contraceptive use in nurses over the long term
- has been expanded to study the effect of lifestyle choices on health

Question 24

Research Designs - Types of Studies: Cross-Sectional

Answer 24

• compares differences and similarities b/w ≥2 groups of people or phenomena and collects data at one pint in time

Question 25

Research Designs - Types of Studies: Case Study

Answer 25

• an in-depth investigation of a single person, group, or phenomenon

Question 26

Research Designs - Types of Studies: Descriptive

Answer 26

• researchers observe and collect pertinent information but do not manipulate or change the environment
• AKA observational studies

Question 27

Research Designs - Types of Studies: Correlational

Answer 27

• type of observational study in which relationship (interrelationships) b/w at least 2 variables is evaluated

3 types:
- positive correlation: 2 variables change together int he same direction
- Ex: when variable A increase, then variable B also increases

• Negative correlation: an increase in one variable results in a decrease in the other
• Ex: when variable A increase, this causes variable B to decrease
• No correlation: the variables are not related
• Ex: a change in variable A does not affect variable B
• study search for relationships b/w a minimum of 2 variables

Question 28

Research Designs - Types of Studies: Experimental

Answer 28

• an important criterion is the use of random sampling and random assignment or research subjects
• at least one control group and one (or more) intervention or treatment group (manipulation)
• causality can be determined (if A + B occur, this will cause C)

Question 29

Research Designs - Types of Studies: Quasi-Experimental

Answer 29

• similar to an experiemental study, except there is no randomization of the research subjects
• instead, recruitment of subjects is convenience sample

Question 30

Deductive Reasoning

Answer 30

• involves going from more general to more specific findings
• AKA “top-down” logic
• in research, this means starting with a theory (generalization) and then narrowing it down buy formulating specific hypotheses (deduction)
• Quantitative studies uses deductive reasoning

Ex:
- Data —> numerical and measurable data
- # of subjects —> May involve large # of individuals, databases
- Subject recruitment —> Randomization possible if experimental design
- Data gathering —> questionnaires, instruments, measurements, surveys
- Logic —> Deductive reasoning
- Design —> systematic, design is known before research starts
- Statistical testing —> Pearson correlation, paired t-test, simple/multiple regression, analysis of variance (ANOVA), etc
- Notes: researcher is an objective observer, declares bias (funding sources)

Question 31

Inductive Reasoning

Answer 31

• opposite of deductive reasoning
• AKA “bottom-up” logic
• involves going from specific findings to generalizations
• ones tarts w/ specific observations, and from these, one may detect a pattern that helps to formulate tentative hypothesis, which may help to generate new theory
• Qualitative studies

Ex:
- Data —> involves words, narratives, subjective opinions
- # of subjects —> few individuals
- Subject recruitment —> Small # of subjects, not randomized
- Data gathering —> in-depth interviews, focus groups, observations; audio or video is recorded, data are transcribed
- Logic —> inductive reasoning, specific data can be generalized
- Design —> may change and evolve to adapt to situation or subjects
- Statistical testing —> interpretation of common themes and patterns; uses limited statistic such as chi-square
- Notes: research is a participant and also an observer (degree of participation varies)

Question 32

Research Process/Phases

Answer 32

Phase 1–Conception
- formulate research problem/question
- review literature
- develop hypothesis(es)

Phase 2-Design and Planning
- select research design
- identify population/sample
- determine protocols, methods, resources required, and ethical considerations
- prepare proposal
- submit to IRB for approval

Phase 3-Implementation
- Recruit participants (obtain consent)
- implement research design
- collect data

Phase 4-Analysis
- organize, analyze, and interpret data

Phase 5-Dissemination
- Prepare final report
- publish and disseminate findings (e.g., journal articles, poster presentations, lectures)