Notes Social Psychology Flashcards
Define Self Concept
What 3 factors make it up?
Theory of how we relate (personality), experience (traits), and function (behavior) within a vast range of significant experiences and contexts.
Made up of ABC- Affects (Emotions), Behavior (Actions), Cognition (Thoughts)
William James’ Self Concept Theory
What makes it up?
“I” - Consciousness
- Observer - Evaluating - Subjective Awareness
“Me” - Self- concept
- Observed
- Empirical
- Made up of self- representations: Social. Material, and Spiritual understandings
A. What is thinking?
Making sense of the world
A. What do we think in terms of
Concepts and Categories
A. Define Concept
Mental representation of real thing
A. Define Category
How we group these mental representations in our minds
A. Cognitive Processes that we undergo
Categorization (A), Reasoning/ Rationalization (B), Problem Solving (C), and Decision Making (D)
A. How does thinking happen
Integrate Perception and Memory
A. 4 Theories of Thought (How do we process information and categorize it)
- Necessary (must be true to belong) and Sufficient (if true, proves it belongs to category)
- Family Resemblance- similarities, not clone though
- Prototype Theory- compare to “best” member of category
- Exemplar Theory- compare new instance with stored memories of other
A. How are prototypes and exemplars processed (where in brain)?
- Category-specific organization = innate, no need for visual experiences.
- Prototypes: Left, Visual Cortex
- Exemplars: Right, Prefrontal Cortex
Vision or Language for memory?
- Verbal> Visual
-Language Capacity is
central for memory
encoding.
What is working self concept?**
- Situation draws different subset of self.
Define emotion
Ubiquitous, immediate response to a stimulus. I subjective (+ or -), and causes physiological activity
What three factors make up an emotional response?
- Cognitive
- Physiological
- Phenomenological
What do emotions provide to others?
- Behavior patters- People experience and identify others’ emotions (mimicry).
- Communications- voice, body, face show emotional state.
What are the three purposes of emotions in our lives?
- Adaptive- fight or flight
- Cognitive- decision making
- Relationships- Interpersonal. Cultures have different “display rules,” and honesty/dishonesty is hard to tell apart.
How are emotions produced?
Interaction of the cortex and amygdala.
Stimulus ->
amygdala (interprets) -> cortex (comprehensive analysis), may downgrade amygdala reaction
What are three theories for how these factors interact? Are they right?
- James–Lange= Stimulus> Physiological>
Phenonenological - Cannon–Bard=
Stimulus>
Physiological and Phenonenological (separate, simultaneous) - Schacter-Singer (Two-Factor)= Stimulus> Physiological> Cognitive Interpretation> Phenonenological
- None are entirely right (3 is the best)
Self- Esteem
FEELINGS about ourselves.
How we see ourselves, shaped how others see us
How is motivation related to behavior?
Motivation drives behavior
How does motivation drive behavior? (3)
Activates, Sustains, and Directs
Motivation is related to _____
Reinforcement
Types of Motivation (Broad Categories in notes)
- Physiological = Homeostasis (regulate)
Made of: Instincts, Needs, Drives - Cognitive = Goal/Expectation
Made of: Intrinsic (self-rewarding) and Extrinsic (rewarded)
Social Cognition
Make sense of oneself, the world, and our reality
Commonsense psychology
Always trying to understand/construct meaning.
Environmental and Personal factors are _____ related
inversely
What is the process of “Cognizing” the World (4) (AIJM)
- Attention
- Interpretation
- Judgement
- Memory (encoding)
We are ______ ________ when processing info
Motivated Tacticians
What are three ways we are Motivated Tacticians?
- Manage self-image- self-serving bias
- Conserve effort- heuristics (not algorithm)
- Accuracy- CDC
The first way is Managing Self Image. How do we do that (3)?
- Confirmation bias and Belief perseverance- look for things that agree with beliefs
- Self- serving bias
Self serving bias
Want to see ourselves positively
Take credit for good; downplay success
Extreme- narcissism
What 3 factors that influence how we self serve?
- Tendency to see oneself favorably
1. Objective vs. Subjective
2. Public vs. Private
3. Aschematic vs. Schematic
**How is self-serving bias manifested?
(3 ways)**
- Self-enhancing- want +
- Self-effacing- distance -
- Counter defensive- distance + , accept
What are 4 outcomes of self-serving bias?
- Fundamental attribution error: hold others to different standards than ourselves.
- Actor- observer divergence: ?
- False consensus: overestimate agreement w/ beliefs
- False uniqueness: underestimate agreement w/ “special” quality/talent
Why do we self-serve?
- We want to be higher subjective well-being, and avoid negatives.
Second way is Conserving Effort. What are four ways we do this? Why?
- Availability heuristics: choose easiest to recall (familiarity)
- Representativeness heuristics- choose one closest to your prototype
- Ignoring base-rate information: choose frequency (1 of 100) over probability (1%)
- Conjunction fallacy- choose 2 events together over a single event
- We place way too much value on OUTCOMES
3rd is Accuracy. Explain it.
- JUDGING OTHERS- Info can be used and explained SYSTEMATICALLY
Give a theory on how we are Accurate when making Judgements
- Covariaton/Attribution theory:
“Jack and Jill”
- Consistency- Often?
- Distinctiveness- Same with all?
- Consensus- Others?
Do cognitions always lead to behavior? Vise versa? Or both?
Not always, it’s a little of both.
Give examples of Situational moderators.
- Constraints
- Choice
Give examples of Attitudinal moderators
- Origins
- Strength
- Specificity
Give examples of how behaviors can lead to cognitions (3):
- Foot in the door phenomenon-
small favor -> big request - Roles we have to play in life
- Gradual escalation- gradually getting people to do things can change their values and cognitions
_____ is the affective component of Attitudes.
LIKING
What do we do when we like someone?
Agree with them and spend time with them.
Name the 5 Factors that predict what we like:
Proximity, Familiarity, Similarity, Attractiveness, Reciprocity
Define Attitudes
Evaluation of any aspect in our world
Define Conformity and Give 3 Examples
- Change in overt behavior caused by real/ imagined pressure from others
- Compliance,
- Obedience,
- Acceptance
What are the 5 factors that influence conformity?
- Social Roles- expecations for us
- Social norms- “rules”
- Status- lower = conform more
- Cohesiveness- attractiveness of group
- Unanimity- odd one out
Define social norms. Give 2 categories.
Standards for behavior that are widely shared by members of a culture (approval motive part).
- Descriptive: what SHOULD be done
- Informational: what MUST be done
What does inconsistency between attitudes and beliefs cause?
Cognitive dissonance, which is an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs
To alleviate cognitive ______, people often change one of these things in order to achieve consistency:
dissonance;
-attitudes, beliefs, actions
What are 3 examples of negative attitudes? How do they link up with ABC?
- Stereotype- generalized Belief (COGNITION)
- Prejudice- generalized feeling (AFFECT)
- Discrimination- generalized actions (BEHAVIOR)
Why do we form negative attitudes?
- Conserve effort- don’t get to know others
- Gain material benefit for our group
More scarcity = more prejudice
What are the 2 levels of stereotypes?
- Categorization- Fit in a category in our minds
2. Inferential- Shapes how we interact with person, we infer how they will be and act (bias/prejudice).
In what situation are we most likely to resort to stereotyping to make a decision?
When there is Complexity, Overload, and Time Pressure.
What do stereotypes provide us with (SIEE)?
- Expectations- what they’ll be like
- Interpretations- so that it fits
- Explanations- for what we see
- Standards- for certain people (useful, but wrong)
Stereotypes influence
judgements through perceived ____-_______ homegenity effect.
out- group
What is out-group homogeneity effect?
- Makes out-group look similar (homogeneous)
- Our group stays the same
- Sharpens the between-group differences
Why does intergroup contact work to deal with stereotyping?
- Contact with out-group members that have traits which counter the negative stereotype
- Contact supported by community/norms
- Equal status groups
- Contact is at individual level
- Contact= rewarding
- Superordinate goal to work towards together*
Which part of this intergroup contact is the most effective?
Having a superordinate goal
Are these techniques to reduce stereotyping effective?
Not always effective
Define Aggression
Action intended to harm another
Give 2 types of aggression
- Hostile- anger based
2. Instrumental- achieve a means
What are means people use to display aggression?
- Directly- in your face
- Indirectly- behind your back
Theories of Aggression:
- Dollard:
Frutration -> Always leads to -> Aggression - Berkowitz:
Pain/Frustration/Unpleasant Experience -> Negative Emotion -> Aggression
What does the Modern Theory of Aggression claim about causes of aggression?
- There is no single causal factor
- Models draw on a variety of different factors
What is a name for a new aggression model
General Affective Aggression model (Anderson)
(Ag) Modern Aggression Model:
Input Variables -> Internal Processes -> Behavior
(Ag) Name Input Variables
Personal, Social, Situational
(Ag) Give examples of internal processes
Arousal, Emotional, Cognition
(Ag) What happens in between internal processes and Behavior?
Appraisal Process
(Ag) Give examples of behavior
Aggressive, Non-aggressive
Define Personality
Enduring patterns of behaving, thinking, and feeling that we express in different contexts.
Another word for personality? (not nice)
“Mask that we wear”
Name 2 approaches to studying personality?
- Ideographic- looks at individuals in detail and uniqueness.
- Nomothetic- Looks at large group and drawing inferences.
Name techniques to determine personality and their efficacy
SELF- REPORT:
1. MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)-2-RF:
Questionnaire that assess personality and psychological problems.
+ Inaccurate
PROJECTIVE TESTS:
1. Rorschach Inkblot Test- inner thoughts revealed in how they respond to inkblots.
- Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)- people’s motives/concerns seen in stories they tell about pics.
+ More info/ subject
to interpreter bias
What are the 4 main approaches that scientists have used to study personality? Name the scientists that used them.
1, Psychodynamic Theory- Freud
- Social Cognitive Approach- Behaviorists
- Trait Theory- Eysenck
- Humanists- Carl Rogers
Define Psychodynamic Theory
Freud: Personality is formed by needs. striving, and desires operating outside of awareness. Can produce emotional disorders–> Push and pull of internal hydraulics
- What type of approach did Freud use to study it?
- What is the fundamental assumption of this theory?
- Clinically based- “Ideographic Approach”
- We are IRRATIONAL beings at our core
Name the 4 Models in the Psychodynamic Approach
- Topographic Model of Mental Processes
- Drive/Instinct Model of Motivation
- Developmental Model
- Structural Model
Topographic Model of Mental Processes (3)
- Conscious- rational/goals
- Preconscious- gateway
- Unconscious- irrational/repressed goals/associative
Drive/Instinct Model of Motivation.
- What drives it?
- Instinctive basis of behavior
- Conflict between conscious and unconscious
- Eros (libido)- seek pleasure/avoid pain
- Thanatos (death drive)- self-destructive urge (most suicides are impulse driven)
Define the Developmental Model
- Personality develops from conflicts (must resolve them)
What is fixation
Unresolved conflict
What are the 5 Psychosexual Stages of Development
- Oral- Dependence
+ Deal w/ stress and anxiety through mouth - Anal- Compliance
+ Anal retentive personality - Phallic- Identification w same sex parent
+ Internalize behaviors - Latency- Sexual/ aggressive sublimation
+ Athletics/competition - Genital- Mature sexuality -> Love and Work
What are the 3 Components of the Structural Model? What drives each of them?
- Id- unconscious urges and desires.
- Driven by pleasure principle - Superego- conscience.
- Internalized authority voice
- Rewards success, guilt if unsuccessful - Ego- mediator
- Find appropriate compromise
- Rational and logical
- Manages emotions/ controls behavior
What is primary process thinking
Irrational, primary, wishful, illogical, associative
What did Freud believe fueled personality? What did this produce in the person?
- Conflict between irrational and rational thoughts and desires.
- Anxiety
What are six defense mechanisms against anxiety?
- Repression- forgetting
- Denial- “I didn’t do it.”
- Projection- What we despise in others reflect on things we don’t like
- Reaction Formation- Take unacceptable impulses and push it outward
- Rationalization- justifying, explaining behavior
- Passive-Aggressiveness- avoiding conflict
Contributions of Freud
- First one to try to explain personality
- Role of unconscious mind
- Role of conflict and compromise, ambivalence
- Childhood experiences shaping
Limitations of Freud
- Tested neurotic Viennese
- Overemphasis on sex
- Lack of support
- Didn’t see adulthood as important to personality development
Behavioral Approach
America’s response to Freud
-> Behaviorist/Cognitive Roots
What do behaviorists believe is the basis of personality? What is there an interplay between?
- Rational and Learned things
- Person and situation
What is the underlying assumption?
Personality isn’t thought as irrational
In what 4 ways is personality manifested when:
- Current context is categorized as meaningful
- Current context is perceived at self-relevant
- There is behavior/self-efficacy-outcome expectancy
- Individual can self-regulate- direct focus
Why is our self regulatory ability important?
It allows us to shape how consistent our personality is.
How do we determine our personality’s consistency?
- Cross-situational/ Time consistency
- We act differently depending on our surroundings.
Name the contributions of the behaviorist approach
- Highlights relationship between person and expectations
- Relationship between person and situation
Criticisms of behaviorist approach
- Doesn’t explain irrational behavior
- Under emphasis on emotional aspects of human nature
T or F: Personality is a combination of traits.
True
What is a trait
Disposition to behave in a certain way. Constitutes underlying personality dimensions.
Traits are ____, ____ ways of behavior that can be _____
constant; specific; measured
What are the levels of Observable tendencies?
- Behavior- repeated in various situations
2. Personality- assume this behaviors a definition of latent personality dimension
Eysenck’s Theory of Personality
Personality consists of Habits: Observable and Predictable
What did he believe traits were?
A group of correlated habits
What is a type?
Correlated traits
What are 3 types of people?
- Introversion/Extroversion
- Neuorticism/Emotional Stability
- Psychotism/Impulse Control
Five Factor Model- Brought by asking people to describe themselves
- 5 superordinate traits
- Traits:
1. Openness to Experience- flexible
2. Conscientiousness- achievement focus
3. Extroversion- social
4. Agreeableness- trusting/tender
5. Neuroticism- anxious/se;f-conscious
Do trait theories assume rationality/irrationality?
No they don’t.
T or F: Some aspects of personality are heritable.
True.
Example: Temperament
The trait theory shows __ - ___ patterns to determine personality
if; then
Contributions of Trait Theory
- Assumptionless- can’t be countered
- Ease of measurement
- Insight into heridability of traits
Limitations
- Self report
- Really descriptive, but not explanatory at all
What is the Humanistic Theory
Person can’t be reduced into components
What did Rogers’ theory claim?
- Humans are born good
- Humans understand mortality and search for meaning
- Interpersonal experience distorts personality
- Need to understand the phenomenal experience (subjective experiences) to understand people
What did Rogers claim happened to humans as they age? Why?
- True self (born) -> Perverted by society -> False Self
- Misinterpretations
What are the Conditions of worth?
Our love/acceptance depends on meeting standards of worth.
How do humanists view self-concept? What causes conflict in this view?
Organized pattern of through/perception of self, and our constant comparison to our ideal self. The bigger the difference, the bigger the internal conflict (anxiety)
What did Rogers and Maslow agree on regarding primary motivation of humans?
Actualizing tendency (self-actualization)
Why is empathy important? What is another word for empathy?
It is key to understanding people. Compassion.
T or F: Existentialists are humanists.
True
What do existentialists focus on?
Subjective existence/experience.
What is the “ultimate issue” according to existentialists?
Existential dread- not understanding our mortality or our meaning in life
What reaction does this “ultimate issue” cause?
Anxiety
According to existentialists, human nature is ______, not _______.
Dynamic; Static
What is bad faith?
When we give away our freedom. And fear freedom.
What is the role of culture/values/beliefs according to Earnest Becker?
To try to protect us from the fear of the unknown (mortality).
How do we react when our beliefs are threatened?
Terror Management Theory: React negatively to those different from us.
Central Issues in Existential Personality Theory
- Subjective experience
- Role of Meaning: vital to driving our lives
- Losing touch with inner feelings: Dangerous, believe our false self
- Seeing self as object
