New - Ch 3 (NoteLM)

Question 1

Temporal precedence

Answer 1

The causal variable comes before the effect variable in time.

Question 2

Covariance

Answer 2

Two variables are observed to change together.

Question 3

Random assignment

Answer 3

Assigning participants to different experimental conditions randomly to minimize systematic differences between groups.

Question 4

Internal validity

Answer 4

he extent to which a study eliminates alternative explanations for the observed effect, establishing a causal link between variables.

Question 5

Statistical validity:

Answer 5

The extent to which the study’s statistical conclusions are accurate and reasonable.

Question 6

External validity

Answer 6

How well the results of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings, and times.

Question 7

Construct validity

Answer 7

How well a conceptual variable is operationalized (measured or manipulated).

Question 8

Validity

Answer 8

The appropriateness, accuracy, and justifiability of a claim or conclusion.

Question 9

Dependent variable

Answer 9

The variable measured in an experiment to see if it is influenced by the independent variable.

Question 10

Independent variable:

Answer 10

The variable manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.

Question 11

Experiment

Answer 11

A research method where a researcher manipulates one variable (independent variable) to observe its effect on another variable (dependent variable).

Question 12

Zero association:

Answer 12

When there is no systematic relationship between two variables.

Question 13

Negative association:

Answer 13

When one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease.

Question 14

Positive association:

Answer 14

When one variable increases, the other variable tends to increase as well.

Question 15

Causal claim:

Answer 15

A claim that argues one variable is responsible for causing changes in another variable.

Question 16

Association claim:

Answer 16

A claim that suggests two variables are related.

Question 17

Frequency claim:

Answer 17

A claim that describes a particular rate or degree of a single variable.

Question 18

Operational definition:

Answer 18

A specific way a conceptual variable is measured or manipulated in a research study.

Question 19

Conceptual variable (construct):

Answer 19

A theoretical definition of an abstract concept being investigated.

Question 20

Manipulated variable:

Answer 20

A variable that a researcher controls, typically by assigning participants to different levels of that variable.

Question 21

Measured variable:

Answer 21

A variable whose levels are observed and recorded as they naturally occur.

Question 22

Constant:

Answer 22

Something that could potentially vary but has only one level in a particular study.

Question 23

Variable

Answer 23

Anything that varies and can take on different values or levels.

Question 24

Why is it challenging for a single study to satisfy all four validities simultaneously?

Answer 24

Prioritizing one type of validity often involves trade-offs with others. For example, enhancing internal validity in a lab setting might reduce the external validity of the findings.

Question 25

What is the importance of external validity in research?

Answer 25

External validity refers to the extent to which a study’s findings can be generalized to other populations, settings, and times beyond the specific context of the research.

Question 26

How does internal validity relate to causal claims?

Answer 26

Internal validity is crucial for causal claims because it establishes that the manipulated variable (and not something else) caused the observed effect. This is achieved by controlling for extraneous factors.

Question 27

Describe the three criteria for establishing causation.

Answer 27

The criteria for causation are covariance (variables change together), temporal precedence (the cause precedes the effect), and internal validity (ruling out alternative explanations).

Question 28

What verbs are commonly used in association claims?

Answer 28

Association claims often use verbs like “link,” “associate,” “correlate,” “predict,” “tie to,” and “be at risk for.”

Question 29

What is the key characteristic of a frequency claim?

Answer 29

Frequency claims focus on a single variable and do not examine relationships between variables.

Question 30

Describe the three types of claims researchers might make.

Answer 30

The three types of claims are frequency claims, association claims, and causal claims. Frequency claims describe a rate or degree of a single variable. Association claims propose relationships between two variables. Causal claims assert that changes in one variable directly lead to changes in another.

Question 31

Explain the difference between a conceptual variable and its operational definition.

Answer 31

A conceptual variable refers to the abstract or theoretical idea being investigated. Its operational definition specifies how that concept will be measured or manipulated in a study. For example, the conceptual variable “stress” might be operationally defined as scores on a stress questionnaire.

Question 32

Differentiate between a measured variable and a manipulated variable. Provide an example of each.

Answer 32

A measured variable is observed and recorded as it naturally exists, while a manipulated variable is controlled by a researcher. For instance, “height” is a measured variable, whereas “dosage of medication” is manipulated.

Question 33

What is a variable? How does a constant differ from a variable?

Answer 33

A variable is an element or construct that can change or have different values. It must have at least two levels or values. In contrast, a constant is something that has the potential to vary but holds only a single level within a particular study.