Neuro (summary sheets) Flashcards
What does white matter contain?
Myelinated axons
What does grey matter contain?
Cell bodies and no myelin sheaths
What is the function of oligodendrocytes?
Myelinate axons in the brain (CNS)
What is the function of Schwann cells?
Myelinate axons in the rest of the body (PNS)
What is a tract (brain)?
Location of pathway e.g. spinothalamic tract
What is a commissure (brain)?
Tract connecting one hemisphere to the other, tracts that cross the midline
What is the lemnisci (brain)?
Narrow strip of fibres
What is the funiculi (brain)?
Rope or chord
What is a fasiculi (brain)?
Bundle e.g. gracile fasiculus
What is a capsule (brain)?
Sheet of white matter fibres that border a nucleus of grey matter
What is a column (brain)?
Longitudinally running fibres separates by other structures e.g. dorsal column
What is the cortex (brain)?
Laminated grey matter on outside of the brain e.g. motor cortex
What are the nuclei (brain)?
Collection of nerve cell bodies within the CNS e.g. arcuate nucleus (in the thalamus, arises from the diencephalon)
What are the ganglia (brain)?
Collection of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS i.e. in the PNS e.g. dorsal root ganglia (derived from neural crest cells) AND some inside CNS that have a capsule e.g. basal ganglia
What are afferents (brain)?
Axons taking information towards the CNS e.g. sensory fibres
What are efferents (brain)?
Axons taking information to another site from the CNS e.g. motor fibres
What are reticular (brain)?
‘Netlike’ where grey & white matter mix e.g. reticular formation of brainstem
How are axons gathered?
Into tracts
Define rostral
Towards the nose (anterior)
Define caudal
Towards tail (posterior)
Define dorsal (brainstem/cord)
Posterior
Define ventral (brainstem/cord)
Anterior
Define dorsal (cerebrum)
Superior
Define ventral (cerebrum)
Inferior
Define sulci (brain)
Grooves
Define gyri (brain)
Ridges
What is the function of the frontal lobe of the brain?
- Voluntary movement on opposite side of body
- Intellectual functioning, thought processes, reasoning and memory
What does the frontal lobe of dominant hemisphere control?
- Speech (Broca’s area)
- Writing (if right handed, left side is dominant)
What does Broca’s area do?
Controls speech
What is the function of the parietal lobe of the brain?
Receives and interprets sensation (proprioception)
What is the function of the temporal lobe of the brain?
- Understanding spoken word (Wernicke’s area)
- Memory & emotion
What does Wernicke’s area do?
Understanding spoken word
What is the function of the occipital lobe of the brain?
Understanding visual images and meaning of written words
What underlies the cortex of the brain?
The white matter
Where are grey matter structures found in the body?
- Deep in the white matter
- Surround ventricles
What is the general function of the thalamus?
Relay centre direction inputs to cortical areas
What is the general function of the hypothalamus?
Links endocrine system to brain and involved in homeostasis
What is the general function and structure of the basal ganglia
- Caudate nucleus, putamen & globus pallidus
- Motor control, cognition & non-motor behaviour
What is the striatum of the basal ganglia?
The caudate nucleus and putamen
What is the lentiform nucleus of the basal ganglia?
Globus pallidus and putamen
What is the function of the cerebellum?
Coordination of voluntary motor movement, balance, equilibrium and muscle tone
What is the structure of the cerebellum?
Lies over the dorsal surface of the brain stem and attached to it by 3 peduncles
Which peduncle joins the cerebellum and the midbrain?
Superior
Which peduncle joins the cerebellum and the pons?
Middle
Which peduncle joins the cerebellum and the medulla?
Inferior
How is the cerebellum separated from the dorsal brainstem?
By the 4th ventricle, which forms part of its roof
What is the cerebellum made of?
Folded cortex, white matter and deep inner nuclei
What does a cerebellar injury result in?
Movements which are slow and uncoordinated
What are the functions of the brainstem?
- Special senses
- Sensory & motor for head & neck via cranial nerves
- Autonomic regulation of the body
- Regulates consciousness
What is the pathway between the brain and spinal cord?
Brainstem
What are 3 components of the brainstem?
Midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata
What are the two components of the mid-brain?
Tectum (superior & inferior colliculi) and cerebral peduncle (tegmentum & crus cerebri)
What structure surrounds the cerebral aqueduct?
The midbrain
What bridges the brainstem to the cerebellum?
Pons
What is the medulla oblongata continuous with?
The spinal cord
What are the two types of specialised cell in the CNS?
- Nerve cell or neurones
- Neuroglia (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes & microglia)
What is gastrulation?
Single layer blastula developing into a triple-laminar disc (gastrula)
Define neuraltion
The process of formation of the embryonic nervous system
What is the process of neuraltion?
- Ectoderm thicks to form the neural plate in the 3rd week
- Undergoes mitosis to form the mid-line groove (neural goove)
- This deepens and detaches to form the neural tube
- The presumptive neural crest cells run dorso-laterally along the neural groove
What cells do the neural crest cells develop to form?
- Sensory (dorsal root) ganglia of the spinal cord and cranial nerves V,VII, IX &X
- Schwann cells
- Pigment cells
- Adrenal medulla
- Bony skull
- Meninges
- Dermis
What does the rostral part of the neural tube form in an adult?
The brain (CNS), grows faster than the caudal portion
What does the caudal part of the neural tube form in an adult?
The spinal cord
What are the 3 primary brain vesicles present by the 5th week of embryonic development?
- Prosencephalon (forebrain)
- Mesencephalon (midbrain)
- Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
What are the secondary brain vesicles which are present by the 7th week of embryonic development?
- Prosencephalon —> Telencephalon & Diencephalon
- Mesencephalon —>
Mesencephalon - Rhombencephalon —>
Metencephalon & Myelencephalon
What does the telencephalon give rise to in the mature brain?
Cerebral hemisphere & lateral ventricles
What does the diencephalon give rise to in the mature brain?
Thalamus, hypothalamus & third ventricle
What does the mesencephalon give rise to in the mature brain?
Midbrain (colliculi) & aqueduct
What does the metencephalon give rise to in the mature brain?
Cerebellum, pons and upper part of 4th ventricle
What does the myelencephalon give rise to in the mature brain?
Medulla oblongata & lower part of 4th ventricle
When does the neural tube usually close?
At the end of the 4th week
What is spina bifida?
Failure of the tube to close in the spinal cord
What is anencephalus?
Failure of the tube to close in the cephalic region (brain)
What may cause spinal cord abnormalities?
Faulty induction or environmental factors, which act on the neuroepithelial cells
When is the eye formed in embryo?
3 weeks
When is there cerebral expansion and commissures in embryo?
10 weeks
When are the basic structures of the brain established in embryo?
3 months
When does myelination occur in embryo?
5 months
When has the lobes cerebrum formed in embryo?
7 months
When has the gyri and sulci formed in embryo?
9 months
When do abnormalities to the CNS tend to occur?
Dependent on time of infection - generally 2nd trimester
What are the basic functions of the brainstem?
- Basic vital functions (breathing & heart rate)
- Delivers basic responses
What is the corpus callous?
A huge fibre bundle that connect the left and right hemispheres together
Which part of the brain delivers much more complex responses?
The cerebral cortex
What percentage of the basic cerebellum contains neurones?
70% - very high percent
Which part of the brain does the most complex tasks?
The cerebellum
How do all sensorimotor, cognitive and motivational/effect structures connect to the cerebellum?
By re-entrant loops
Where does the basic cerebellum receive input from?
The motor cortex, brain stem nuclei and sensory receptors
Which part of the brain modulates upper motor neurones?
Basic cerebellum
What is the structure of the cortex like?
Very uniform over its entire surface
What may damage to the cerebellum do?
Makes many movements inaccurate, slow & uncoordinated
Which part of the brain makes sure movement commands are done properly?
The cerebellum - other parts can issue the commands but its the cerebellum which ensures it’s done properly
Where in the brain is responsible for fine coordinated voluntary movement?
Cerebellum
What are the main components of the basal ganglia?
- Dorsal striatum (caudate nucleus & putamen)
- Ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens & olfactory tubercle)
- Globus pallidus (internal and external segment)
- Ventral pallidum
- Substantia nigra
- Subthalamic nucleus
What makes up the dorsal striatum?
Caudate nucleus & putamen
What makes up the ventral striatum?
Nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle
What makes up the globus pallidus?
Internal and external segment
How does the basal ganglia connect to inputs of the brain?
By recurrent loops
What does the basal ganglia do in the sense of the competing systems in the brain?
Selects which one to do out of:
- Emotions
- Cognitions
- Sensorimotor
What are the outputs of the basal ganglia like?
Inhibitory & tonically active (slow & continuous)
What is the function of the hippocampus?
- Critical for episodic memory
- Essential for the construction of mental images
- Vital role in short term memory
- Important for spatial memory & navigation
What is the hippocampus part of?
The limbic system
What is anterograde tract tracing?
Transport from neuronal cells bodies to axon terminals
What is retrograde tract tracing?
Transport from axonal terminals to neuronal cell bodies
How can an increase in neural activity be detected by lumbar puncture?
- Results in the increase in the release of neurotransmitter
- More breakdown product
- Detected in CSF by lumbar puncture
How can an increase in neural activity be detected by imaging techniques?
- More active regions require more oxygen
- So require more blood
- Imaging can detect haemodynamic changes
What can a EEG detect?
Gives an indication of regional brain activity underlying electrodes
What is the basic cellular unit of the nervous system?
Neurones
How can neurones be adapted?
They are specialised for different functions
What are the basic components of all neurones?
- Dendrites
- Cell body/soma
- Axon
- Presynaptic terminal
What are the functions of the neurones?
- Receive information via dendrites which transmit to the cell body (soma)
- Transmit information via axons and action potentials are propagated from the axon hillock
What are neurones stained with H&E?
- Haemotoxylin stains the nuclei acids blue
- Eosin satins the proteins red
What can stain myelin?
Luxor fast blue (LFB)
What can stain RER in the neurones?
Cresol violet (CV)
Define neural plasticity
The basis of learning and memory
What is an early marker of Alzheimer’s?
The loss of dendritic spines
What are the three functional classes that neurones can be divided into?
- Afferent (sensory)
- Efferent (motor)
- Interneurons (within the CNS)
What forms the nerves of the PNS?
Groups of afferent and efferent neurone axons together with connective tissue and blood vessels
What is a nerve fibre?
A single axon
What is a nerve?
A bundle of axons (fibres) bound together by connective tissue
Where do afferent neurones convey information to?
From the tissues to organs TOWARDS the CNS
What do afferent neurones have at their peripheral ends?
Furthest from the CNS, afferent neurones have sensory receptors
What happens at the ends of afferent neurones?
The sensory receptors respond to various physical or chemical changes in their environment by generating electrical signals in the neurone
How do the axons of the afferent neurones divide?
- The peripheral process begins where the dendritic branches converge from the receptor ends
- The central process enters the CNS to form junctions with other neurones
What is the only part of the afferent neurone which enters the CNS?
The central process. The cell body & long axon (peripheral process) are outside the CNS
Where do efferent neurones convey information to?
Away from the CNS to effector cells such as muscle, gland or other cell types
Which part of efferent neurones are present within the CNS?
- Cell bodies and dendrites are within the CNS
- The axons extend out to the periphery
What is the function of interneurones?
Connect neurones within the CNS - form the majority of neurones
Which parts of the interneurones lie within the CNS?
They lie entirely within the CNS
What do sheaths of myelin usually consist of?
20-200 layers of highly modified plasma membrane wrapped around the axon by a nearby supporting cell
What does the myelin compromise of?
70% lipid & 30% protein
What are the myelin-forming cells of the CNS?
Oligodendrocytes - each one of these may branch to form meylin on as many as 40 axons
What are the myelin-forming cells of the PNS?
Schwann cells - they form individual myelin sheaths surrounding segments at regular intervals along the axons
What are nodes of Ranvier?
The spaces between adjacent sections of myelin where the axons’ plasma membrane is exposed to extracellular fluid
What is a function of myelin?
Increases the speed of conduction along the axons
Where are myelinated axons usually found?
In the somatic nerves - they are thicker
Where are unmyelinated axons usually found?
In the post-ganglionic autonomic fibres, fine sensory fibres, olfactory neurones and interneurones
What are the two cell types in the CNS?
Neurones and glial cells
What is the function of glial cells?
Surround the cell body, axon and dendrites of the neurones and provide them with physical and metabolic support
What are the 5 types of glial cells?
- Oligodendrocytes
- Schwann cells
- Astrocytes
- Microglia
- Ependymal cells
What is the function of oligodendrocytes?
- Glial cells of the CNS
- Myelinating cells for rapid nerve conduction
- Provides metabolic support for axons and transports metabolic products directly into axons
- Myelinate multiple axons
What is the function of Schwann cells?
- Glial cells of the PNS
- Myelinating cells
- Myelinate single axons
What is the function of astrocytes?
Help regulate the composition of the extracellular fluid in the CNS by removing K ions and neurotransmitters around synapses
What is the astrocytes function with glutamate?
Astrocytes take it up, covert it into glutamine and release it, then neurones can take it up ad convert it back to glutamate for reuse
What is the astrocytes function with the formation of tight junctions?
- They stimulate this between the walls of the capillaries found in the CNS - this forms the blood-brain barrier
- This is done by foot processes closely applied around capillaries
How do astrocytes sustain the neurones metabolically?
By providing glucose and removing ammonia
What is the structure of astrocytes?
Star-like cells
What are the most numerous glial cells in the CNS?
Astrocytes
Where are protoplasmic astrocytes found?
In grey matter
Where are fibrous astrocytes found?
In white matter
What are radial glia?
Crucial in guiding developing neurones - these are only developmental and aren’t found in the adult brain
What are Muller glia?
Specialised radial glia of the retina
What are Bergmann glia?
Found in the cerebellum, support Purkinje cell dendrites and synapses
What is the structure of microglia?
Specialised macrophage-like cells that perform immune functions in the CNS
What are microglia derived from?
Progenitors that migrate into the CNS from the periphery
Which glial cell is proliferative at injury?
Microglia