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nervous system Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

where is gray matter located in the brain?

A
  • on the outer layer
  • has the cell bodies
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2
Q

where is white matter located in the brain?

A

on the inner layer

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3
Q

where is gray matter located in the spinal cord?

A

inner layer

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4
Q

where is white matter located in the spinal cord?

A

outer layer

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5
Q

are myelinated or unmyelinated axons in the gray matter?

A

unmyelinated axons

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6
Q

are myelinated or unmyelinated axons in the white matter?

A

myelinated axons
white from colour of myelin sheath

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7
Q

what seperates the frontal lobe from the temporal lobe?

A

the lateral sulcus

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8
Q

what is the corpus callosum?

A

the white matter tract that connects the two hemispheres of the brain

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9
Q

what is the longitudinal fissure?

A
  • runs the length of the brain and seperates the two hemispheres
  • a deep groove that marks the division between the left and right cerebral hemispheres of the brain
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10
Q

what is the name for the two hemispheres of the brain?

A

the cerebrum

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11
Q

what does the central nervous system include?

A
  • brain
  • spinal cord
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12
Q

what does the peripheral nervous system include?

A
  • motor
  • sensory
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13
Q

what are CNS components encased by?

A

bone:

  • brain within the skull
  • spinal cord within the vertebral column
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14
Q

why are CNS components encased by bone?

A

for protection

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15
Q

lissencephalic

A

smooth

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16
Q

gyrencephalic

A

grooved (increased surface area)

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17
Q

what are the grooves in the brain called?

A

sulci

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18
Q

what are the ridges in the brain called?

A

gyri

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19
Q

what are the lobes of the cerebral cortex?

A
  • frontal lobe
  • parietal lobe
  • temporal lobe
  • occipital lobe
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20
Q

what is the cerebral cortex?

A
  • outer layer that lies on cerebrum
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21
Q

what is the cerebrum?

A
  • the largest part of the brain
  • divided into two halves = cerebral hemispheres
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22
Q

rostral

A

directed towards the nose / to the front

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23
Q

caudal

A

directed towards the tail / to the back

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24
Q

what does the central sulcus do?

A

seperates frontal and parietal lobes

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25
Q

what does the lateral sulcus do?

A

seperates frontal and parietal lobes from temporal lobe
(sylivain fissure)

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26
Q

where is the parieto-occipital sulcus?

A

between the parietal and occipital lobes

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27
Q

where is the calcarine sulcus?

A

within the occipital lobe (primary visual cortex)

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28
Q

cerebellum

A
  • little brain
  • controls movement and coordination
  • large surface areas
  • densely packed with neurons
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29
Q

how many lobes does the cerebellum have?

A

3 = anterior, posterior, flocculonodular

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30
Q

the brainstem

A
  • regulates vital body functions (breathing, body temp, consciousness, sleep/wake cycle…)
  • can be seperated into midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata
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31
Q

midbrain

A
  • vision
  • hearing
  • motor control
  • needed as a “relay center”
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32
Q

pons

A
  • pneumotaxic centre
  • unconscious processes and jobs e.g. sleep/wake cycle, breathing
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33
Q

medulla oblongata

A
  • cardiac
  • respiratory
  • vasomotor
  • vomiting (can detect chemoreceptors)
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34
Q

cerebral ventricular system

A
  • 4 interconnected cavities -> 2 lateral ventricles (1 in each hemisphere), third & fourth ventricle
  • filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
  • produce and secrete cerebrospinal fluid to protect and maintain your central nervous system.
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35
Q

cerebrospinal fluid

A
  • acts as a shock receptor
  • produced by choroid plexus
  • also between tissues of CNS and bones of skull
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36
Q

what are meninges?

A
  • layers of membrane (3 layers)
  • protect brain and spinal cord
  • made of connective tissue
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37
Q

what are the 3 layers (meninges) that protect the CNS?

A
  • dura mater
  • arachnoid
  • pia mater
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38
Q

dura mater

A
  • tough outer layer
  • skull cap
  • prevents direct contact with the skull
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39
Q

arachnoid

A
  • “spider-web” layer
  • under the dura
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40
Q

pia mater

A
  • thin inner layer
  • close to CNS surface
  • in direct contact with tissue of brain
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41
Q

the spinal cord

A
  • tube like structure
  • made of grey and white matter
  • allows communication between brain & body
  • communicated via spinal nerves in PNS
  • relays information to & from skin, joints, muscles
  • reflexes = brain not always involved
  • surrounded by large bones to protect from trauma
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42
Q

how many spinal cord segments are there?

A

31

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43
Q

what are the spinal cord segments?

A

-cervical = 8 (C1-C8)
-thoracic = 12 (T1-T12)
-lumbar = 5 (L1-L5)
-sacral = 5 (S1-S5)
-coccygael = 1 (Co)

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44
Q

is the dorsal horn of the spinal cord sensory or motor?

A

sensory -> sensory nerves (& info) enter this part of the spinal cord

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45
Q

is the ventral horn of the spinal cord sensory or motor?

A

motor

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46
Q

dorsal columns / funiculus

A

ascending sensory (nerve) axons

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47
Q

ventral funiculus / columns

A

descending axons

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48
Q

lateral funiculus

A

ascending & descending axons

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49
Q

what are neurons?

A

cells specialised to receive, process and transmit infor via electrochemical signalling

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50
Q

neurites

A

axons and dendrites -> any projection from cell body of neuron

51
Q

classification of neurons

A
  1. number of neurites
  2. dendritic tree structure (pyramidal/stellate, spiny/aspinous
  3. axon length (projection or local circuit neurons)
  4. neurotransmitter (each have diff function)
  5. connections (sensory, inter or motor neurons
52
Q

afferent nerves

A
  • sensory nerves
  • signal to CNS (brain) from PNS / sensory surfaces
  • enter CNS via dorsal root
53
Q

efferent nerves

A
  • motor nerves
  • info from brain to PNS for action
  • exit CNS via ventral root
54
Q

projection neurons features

A
  • long axons
    e.g. pyramidal cells of cerebral cortex, golgi type 1
55
Q

local circuit neurons features

A
  • short axons
    e.g. stellate cells of cerebral cortex, golgi type 2, interneurons
56
Q

interneurons

A

form connections between neurons

57
Q

what are spinal nerves a part of?

A

PNS

58
Q

what is potential difference?

A
  • the difference in potential between two points
  • potential of charge to move across the membrane
59
Q

how can you measure potential difference?

A
  • by placing an electrode inside the cell and measuring it vs the electrode outside the cell
  • potential always: inside vs outside
60
Q

what is the resting potential?

A
  • potential difference across a membrane when the cell is non-excited
  • no potential difference when the charge is evenly distributed
61
Q

what do ion channels do?

A
  • permit or prevent movement across a membrane
  • selective for particular ions (Na+, K+…)
  • a membrane spanning protein complex
  • can be gated or non-gated
62
Q

how does the membrane potential change?

A
  • channel opens until charges reach an equilibrium
  • happens freely if not gated and triggered by a stimuli if gated
63
Q

which channels are open at rest?

A
  • potassium channels
  • K+ free to move and equibrilate
64
Q

which channels are closed at rest?

A

-sodium channels

65
Q

why do K+ ions keep flowing out?

A

-there is more K+ inside than outside
-not only a concentration gradient!!
-> the overall negative charge of the cell pulls K+ back in aswell
= electrical and concentration gradient

66
Q

when does the equilibrium potential occur?

A

-where you have no net movement

67
Q

what is the average resting membrane potential?

A

around -70mV
-> closer to K+ equibilibrium potential (-90mV) (Na+: +60mV)

68
Q

what affects the rate of conduction of an action potential?

A
  • myelin
  • temperature
  • nerve diameter
69
Q

what is saltatory conduction?

A
  • impulse conduction that jumps from one axon to the next (node to node)
  • skips over the myelinated parts of the axon -> faster
70
Q

2 types of synapses

A
  • electrical
  • chemical
71
Q

electrical synapse

A
  • signals passed directly between connected axons via gap junctions
72
Q

chemical synapse

A
  • communicate via chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) across junction between axon of presynaptic and cell body of postsynaptic neuron
73
Q

what does the somatic nervous system do?

A

controls voluntary movement

74
Q

what does the autonomic nervous system do?

A

controls involuntary responses

75
Q

what are the 4 largest lobes of the cerebral cortex

A
  • frontal lobe
  • parietal lobe
  • temporal lobe
  • occipital lobe
76
Q

prefrontal cortex

A
  • problem solving
  • complex planning
  • executive function
  • personality
  • higher cognitive functions
77
Q

motor cortex

A
  • planning, control & execution of voluntary movement
  • premotor cortex
  • supplementary motor area
  • primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus, M1)
78
Q

broca´s area

A
  • production of speech
  • usually in left hemisphere (if right handed) -> only in 1 hemisphere of the brain
  • broca´s aphasia = disturbance in speech
79
Q

parietal lobe functions

A

processing of sensory information

  • primary somatosensory cortex (S1)
    -> tactile sensation
    -> sensory homunculus
  • posterior parietal cortex
    -> integration of sensory informtion
    -> spacial perception & attention
    -> cognitive functions
80
Q

what does the sensory homunculus show?

A

how much of the primary somatosensory cortex is devoted to tactile sensation in certain parts of the body

81
Q

occipital lobe functions

A

visual processing center of the brain

  • primary visual cortex (V1)
    -> straited appearance due to myelinated axons
    -> located around calcarine sulcus
    -> receives info from the thalamus
    -> organised into 6 layers
    -> processes info related to all parts
  • V2, V3, V4, V5: other areas of visual cortex
    -> relay different information depending on shape, size and position of objects
82
Q

temporal lobe

A

processes sensory information
(+ long term memory formation & visual perception and recognition)

  • auditory cortex
    -> hearing
    -> speech & words
    -> pitch & tone
  • wernicke´s area
    -> langauge comprehension
    -> aphasia: can procude speech just not understand it
    -> left hemiphere
83
Q

the peripheral nervous system

A
  • formed by sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) nerve fibres
  • these fibres emerge from the brain and spinal cord to innervate every structure in the body
84
Q

cranial nerves

A
  • 12 pairs of nerves (in back of brain)
  • provide motor output and sensory info between brain, face, neck and torso
  • ROMAN NUMERALS when naming
85
Q

spinal nerves

A
  • 31 pairs (one pair per spinal cord segment)
  • motor and sensory nerve fibres mixed
86
Q

sensory (afferent) axons end in_____

A

sensory receptors

87
Q

motor (efferent) axons end in______

A

effectors (muscles)

88
Q

what are dermatomes?

A

areas of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve
C1: only spinal nerve without a dermatome

89
Q

shingles

A

virus attacks a single spinal nerve -> problems in lesion in dermatome supplied by that nerve

90
Q

what is a reflex?

A
  • a rapid, involuntary movement in response to a stimulus
  • subconcious -> brain gets the info but the brain is not needed for the reflex to occur
91
Q

function of a reflex?

A
  • protection from harmful stimuli
92
Q

examples of reflexes

A
  • sneezing
  • coughing
  • vomiting
  • balance and posture
  • homeostasis
93
Q

what is a reflex arc?

A
  • simple circuit in the nervous system
  • start: sensory receptors (info relayed by sensory nerves)
  • end: effectors (motor nerves)
  • do not reach consciousness
94
Q

monosynaptic

A

1 sensory and 1 motor neuron

95
Q

polysynaptic

A

more than 2 neurons (interneuron(s) needed)

96
Q

knee jerk reflex - tendon jerk

A
  • stretch reflex (stretch of muscle: hammer tap to patellar tendon)
  • stretch of muscle spindle in quadriceps muscle
  • sensory fibred to spinal cord synapse with alpha motorneuron
  • motorneuron stimulates contraction of the quadriceps muscle (effector)
97
Q

tendon jerk reflexes

A
  • can be evoked from many muscles
  • sensory receptor detects muscle stretch which leads to muscle contraction as efferent motorneuron output to skeltal muscle (somatic motor)
  • involves somatic sensory and somatic motor divisions of the PNS
  • monosynaptic
98
Q

flexion (withdrawal) reflex

A
  • polysynaptic
  • interneurons needed
99
Q

control reflexes

A
  • closed loop
  • role in control of physiological variables
  • stimulus feedback causes response which acts on the stimulus
  • muscle stretch -> muscle contraction
  • example: tendon jerk reflex
100
Q

protective reflexes

A
  • open loop -> sensorimotor loop not completed by sensory feedback
  • protection from potentially harmful stimuli
  • stimulus feedback has no effect on the stimulus
  • pin prick e.g. leads to withdrawal from the pin / external stimuli
  • example: flexion withdrawal reflex
101
Q

what is the autonomic nervous system?

A
  • involuntary control of the body´s internal environment
  • autonomic reflexes differ from somatic reflexes (efferent output)
  • visceral efferent nerves to smooth & cardiac muscle and glands
  • two neuron chain: synapse in a ganglion
    pre and post ganglionic fibres
102
Q

what is the somatic nervous system?

A

conscious voluntary control

103
Q

crossed extensor reflex

A
  • stimulus causes flexion of leg (withdrawal)
  • other leg must extend to support weight of the body to prevent falling over
  • sensory info crosses spinal cord via interneurons
104
Q

what is the enteric nervous system?

A
  • collection of neurons
  • form a network = plexuses
  • plexuses surround the GI tract
  • “second brain”
  • located in walls of GI tract as 2 plexi
  • can act autonomously to control peristalsis and secretion
  • has its own pacemaker cells
  • influenced by sympathetic and parasympathetic input hormones and sensory input
105
Q

what can the ANS be split into?

A
  • sympthetic
  • parasympathetic
106
Q

sympathetic NS

A
  • activated in times of stress, fear and anxiety
  • helps body respond when needed
  • “fight or flight”
107
Q

parasympathetic NS

A
  • activated when sedentary
  • “rest and digest”
108
Q

are the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS efferent or afferent pathways?

A
  • efferent
  • they control targets via bisynaptic pathway (2 neurons& 2 synapses)
109
Q

autonomic pathway

A

2 neurons that synapse in a ganglion

110
Q

sympathetic neuron

A
  • shorter preganglionic neuron (myelinated)
  • longer postganglionic neuron (unmyelinated)
  • position of ganglion closer to CNS
111
Q

parasympathetic neuron

A
  • longer preganglionic neuron (myelinated)
  • shorter postganglionic neuron (unmyelinated)
  • position of ganglion clsoer to target organ
112
Q

where do parasympathetic preganglionic neurons originate from?

A
  • cranial nerves (III, VII, IX, X)
  • spinal cord levels S2-S4
  • craniosacral outflow
  • either end of the CNS
113
Q

where do sympathetic preganglionic neurons originate from?

A
  • spinal cord levels T1-L2
  • the lateral horn
  • thoracolumbar outflow (thoracic and lumbar spinal cord)
114
Q

what is the lateral horn?

A

a small lateral projection of grey matter located between the dorsal horn and ventral horn and contain the neuronal cell bodies of the sympathetic nervous system.

115
Q

what controls the enteric NS?

A
  • smypathetic & parasympathetic innervention
  • hormonal and sensory inputs
116
Q

location of the ganglia in the parasympathetic NS

A
  • cranial nerves II, VII, IX synapse in ganglia in the head
  • cranial nerve X & sacral neurons synapse in ganglia close to target organ
  • synapse in the wall of the target organs
117
Q

location of ganglia in the sympathetic NS

A
  • sympathetic chain
  • prevertebral (pre-aortic) ganglia
  • helps distribute sympathetic outflow to the whole body
118
Q

why is signal conduction faster in the parasympathetic pathway compared to the sympathetic?

A
  • the pre-ganglionic neurons in the parasympathetic pathway are longer and myelinated.
119
Q

parasympathetic distribution of the ganglia

A
  • long preganglionic neurons
  • short postganglionic neurons
  • only has visceral (organ) distribution
120
Q

sympathetic ganglia distribution

A
  • series of ganglia that extend from the cranial base to coccyx
  • also called sympathetic trunks / paravertebral ganglia
  • help distribute neurons throughout the whole body
121
Q

which neurotransmitter do most post-ganglionic sympathetic neurons release?

A

noradrenaline onto visceral targets
EXCEPT: sweat glands -> Acht

122
Q

which neurotransmitter do all post-ganglionic paraysmpathetic neurons release?

A

Acht at muscarinic receptors on visceral targets

123
Q

what is the adrenal medulla?

A
  • inner part of the adrenal gland (small organ ontop of each kidney)
  • makes chemicals such as adrenaline and noradrenaline which are involved in sending nerve signals
  • a modified ganglion
  • composed of specialised neuroendocrine cells that secrete noradrenaline and adrenaline directly into the blood stream
  • preganglionic sympathetic neurons synapse directly onto cells in the adrenal medulla
124
Q

fight of flight response

A
  • adrenal secretions act on adrenergic receptors directly & globally
  • this activated organs supplied by postganglionic sympathetic neurons (blood vessels, liver, bronchi…)
  • also acts on adrenergic receptors of other organs (skeletal muscle…)+
  • effects of adrenal medulla secreations lasts longer than direct synapses because the blood stream does not contain enzymes to break down adrenaline and noradrenaline

human biology (11 decks)

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