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cardiovascular system Flashcards

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1
Q

what is the pericardium?

A
  • outer casing of the heart
  • protective fluid-filled sac surrounding the heart
  • outermost layer = fibrous pericardium
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2
Q

where is the heart located?

A
  • between lungs to the left
  • twisted to the back
  • harder to access the left side of the heart
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3
Q

how many borders does the heart have?

A

4

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4
Q

what are the borders of the heart?

A
  • superior border = great vessels enter and leave
  • interior border = lies on the diaphragm / in line with it
  • right border = faces right lung
  • left border = faces left lung
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5
Q

the apex

A

where the ventricles join up

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6
Q

what is the mediastinum?

A
  • central compartment of the thoracic cavity
  • area between the lungs
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7
Q

what does the mediastinum contain?

A
  • heart
  • great vessels
  • thymus
  • oesophagus
  • trachea
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8
Q

what are anterior (front) landmarks of the heart?

A
  • coronary sulcus
  • anterior interventicular sulcus
  • auricles
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9
Q

the (anterior) coronary sulcus

A
  • marks division between the atria and the ventricles (right atrium & right ventricle?)
  • continues posteriorly
  • right coronary artery (RCA) in sulcus anteriorly
  • grove for veins & arteries
  • RCA sits in within a “line of fat”
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10
Q

the anterior interventricular sulcus

A
  • marks division between ventricles (left & right ventricle)
  • continues posteriorly as posterior interventriculary sulcus
  • Left anterior descending (LAD) from left coronary artery (LCA) in sulcus anteriorly
  • LAD sits within this sulcus
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11
Q

auricles

A
  • atrical appendages
  • increase capacity -> extra “spaces” for atria to expand
  • used when the heart is working really hard
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12
Q

what are the posterior (back) landmarks of the heart?

A
  • coronary sulcus
  • posterior interventricular sulcus
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13
Q

the (posterior) coronary sulcus

A
  • division between atria and ventricles
  • continous anteriorly
  • coronary sinus in sulcus
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14
Q

the posterior interventricular sulcus

A
  • marks division between ventricles
  • continues anteriorly as anterior interventricular sulcus
  • posterior descending artery (PDA) from LCA or RCA in sulcus
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15
Q

how can you identify the left atrium?

A
  • 4 pulmonary vein vessels
  • found in the back of the heart
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16
Q

layers of the heart wall

A
  • epicardium (outer) = the visceral layer of the serous pericardium
  • myocardium (middle) = cardiac muscle
  • endocardium (inner) = continuous with endothelium of large vessels of the heart
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17
Q

what are the 2 types of the pericardium?

A
  • fibrous
  • serous
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18
Q

fibrous pericardium

A
  • tough & inelastic
  • rests on / attached to diaphragm
  • open end fused with great vessels
  • physically attached to diaphragm
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19
Q

serous pericardium

A
  • parietal layer (fused to fibrous pericardium)
  • visceral layer (continuous / part of epicardium)
  • pericardial cavity (space between parietal and visceral layers contains pericardial fluid)
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20
Q

what is the role of pericardial fluid? and where is it found?

A
  • in the pericardial cavity
  • to reduce friction bc layers rub against each other
  • helps the heart expand and contract easier
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21
Q

why is the fibrous pericardium physically attached to the diaphragm?

A
  • to allow synchronised movement when breathing in and out
  • prevents heart and diaphragm from hitting each other
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22
Q

what are the chambers of the heart?

A
  • right atrium (RA)
  • right ventricle (RV)
  • left atrium (RA)
  • left ventricle (RV)
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23
Q

right atrium

A

gets deoxygenated blood from the vena cavae (biggest vein in body) & coronary sinus (at the back of the heart)

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24
Q

right ventricle

A

pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs (pulmonary circulation)

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25
Q

left atrium

A

gets oxygenated blood from lungs via pulmonary veins

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26
Q

left ventricle

A

pumps oxygenated blood in aorta (systematic circulation)
blood to rest of the body

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27
Q

pulmonary circulation

A
  • the system of transportation
  • de-oxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs to be re-saturated with oxygen before being dispersed into the systemic circulation
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28
Q

systematic cirulation

A

provides the functional blood supply to all body tissue.

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29
Q

what are the types of valves of the heart?

A
  • atrioventricular (AV) valves (tricuspid valve, bicuspid valve)
  • semilunar (SL) valves (pulmonary valve, aortic valve)
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30
Q

is the right AV tricuspid or bicuspid?

A

tricuspid = 3 leaflets / cusps

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31
Q

is the left AV tricuspid or bicuspid?

A

bicuspid (mitral) =2 cups

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32
Q

what muscles and tendons are involved in the valve cusps

A
  • chordae tendinae
  • papillary muscle (projection of myocardium, pushed down / pull on chordae tendinae & valve closes)
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33
Q

pectinate muscles

A
  • on RA
  • myocardium projections
  • make surface not smooth = facilitate expansion without tension
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34
Q

trabeculae carneae

A
  • contract and pull on the chordae tendinae
  • prevent inversion of the bicuspid and tricuspid valves towards the atrial chambers
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35
Q

the great vessels of the heart

A
  • superior vena cava (back from above the heart)
  • pulmonary arteries (split in the lungs)
  • pulmonary trunk (splits into the pulmonary arteries)
  • inferior vena cava (from the bottom of the heart)
  • aortic arch (blood to body)
  • pulmonary veins (blood from lungs)
  • ascending aorta
  • left common carotid (goes up the neck)
  • brachiocephalic
  • left subclavian (upper limbs)
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36
Q

functions of blood

A
  • transportation (nutrients & waste)
  • protection (immune system)
  • regulation (hormones, proteins)
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37
Q

haematopoiesis

A

blood production

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38
Q

haemorrhaging

A

blood loss

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39
Q

blood components

A
  • red blood cells (erythrocytes)
  • white blood cells (leukocytes)
  • platelets (thrombocytes)
  • plasma (the ECM of the blood)
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40
Q

red blood cells

A
  • produced in bone marrow
  • erythropoietin - kidney
  • no nucleus
  • haemoglobin protein
  • haematocrit (40-45%)
  • anaemia (low number of erythrocytes, low iron)
  • polycythaemia (high number of erythrocytes, viscosity)
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41
Q

white blood cells

A
  • protection
  • phagocytosis
  • 2 classes:
    -> granulocytes (neutrophils…)
    -> agranulocytes (lymphocytes…)
  • leukopenia (low WBC count, infection)
  • leukocytosis (high WBC countm inflammation)
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42
Q

platelets

A
  • cell fragments
  • control blood loss
  • fibrin clot -> help body form clots to stop bleeding
  • normal count = 150,000 - 450,000 platelets per microliter)
  • thrombocytosis (>450,000)
  • thrombocytopenia (<150,000)
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43
Q

plasma

A
  • straw-coloured liquid
  • blood cells are suspended in it
  • ECM of blood
  • half of blood is made of plasma
  • composed of:
    -> water (92%)
    -> proteins -> major proteins = albumin
    -> glucose
    -> electrolytes
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44
Q

what is included in central control of the cardiac cycle?

A

anything from the heart

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45
Q

what is included in the peripheral control of the cardiac cycle?

A

blood vessels from the rest of the body

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46
Q

diastole

A

filling & relaxation

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47
Q

systole

A

pumping & contraction
(ventricles contracting & pump blood out)

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48
Q

central venous pressure (CVP)

A
  • pressure in the thoracic vena cava near the right atrium
  • how much blood is going back to the heart
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49
Q

mean arterial pressure (MAP)

A

MAP=1/3 (SysP) + 2/3 (DiaP)
- average arteriol pressure throughout one cardiac cycle (systole + diastole)

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50
Q

does diastole or systole take longer?

A

diastole lasts longer
in systole only for 1/3 of cardiac cycle

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51
Q

aortic pressure

A

the difference between diastolic & systolic pressure

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52
Q

what does the aortic pulse pressure show?

A
  • how effective the left ventricle is in pulsing blood into the aorta
  • the pulse pressure caused by this
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53
Q

the end diastolic volume

A
  • 120ml
  • when ventricles are at their maximum capacity
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54
Q

stroke volume

A
  • 70ml
  • the volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle of the heart during each systolic cardiac contraction
55
Q

end systolic volume

A
  • 50ml
  • the volume left in the ventricle after systolic contraction occurred
56
Q

why are the ventricles never empty of blood?

A

because the cardiac muscles are always slightly contracted

57
Q

what is Starling´s law?

A
  • increase in contractile energy with stretch (diastolic distension)
  • a greater stretch of muscle fibres = greater contractile energy
  • the stroke volume of the left ventricle will increase as the left ventricular volume increases due to the myocyte stretch causing a more forceful systolic contraction.
58
Q

what happens when there is increased contractile energy in the wall of the heart´s ventricle?

A
  • able to push more blood out
59
Q

what happens when you faint?

A
  • low Central venous pressure (CVP)
  • blood pools in feet
  • fibres in diastole shorten
  • weaker contractions
  • stroke volume (SV) drops
  • arterial pressure drops
60
Q

what to do when someone faints

A
  • put feet up
  • this causes blood to return back to the right atrium
61
Q

peripheral control of haemodynamic function

A
  • changes in blood vessel diameter (tone) can influence pressure and flow characteristics
  • via 2 mechanisms:
    -> autonomic
    -> metabolic
  • targets for therapeutics
62
Q

how is pressure regulated?

A

by mechanoreceptors / baroreceptor reflex

  • able to relay information derived from blood pressure within the ANS
63
Q

how does the baroreceptor reflex work?

A
  1. baroreceptors: stretch in the receptors in walls of major arteries sense stretch which causes change in blood pressure
  2. brainstem: communicates with nerves which control the heart & blood vessels
  3. changes occur in cardiac output, peripheral resistance and nevous capacitance
  4. blood pressure: restores arterial blood pressure to normal levels
64
Q

what are the normal levels of arterial blood pressure?

A

85-100mmHg

65
Q

what are baroreceptors?

A
  • stretch sensitive fibres
  • a type of mechanoreceptors
  • relaying information derived from blood pressure within the autonomic nervous system
66
Q

where are baroreceptors found?

A
  • in the aortic arch
  • each of the carotid sinuses
67
Q

what are carotid bodies?

A
  • sensory organs that detect the chemical composition of arterial blood
  • chemoreceptors
68
Q

hypotension

A

<90mmHg
low blood pressure

69
Q

hypertension

A

> 140mmHg

  • high blood pressure
  • impairs stroke volume
  • diuretics reduce overall blood volume -> weak heart doesnt need to pump such a large volume of blood around
70
Q

what occurs during hypertension?

A
  • thicker arterial walls as a result of vascular remodelling occuring to compensate for high blood pressure
71
Q

what do thicker arterial walls cause?

A
  • needed due to the increased blood pressure
  • narrows the lumen and reduceses blood flow
72
Q

how to calculate blood flow?

A

Q=(P1 - P2) / R

Q=blood flow
P1=aorta
P2=vena cava
R=resistance

73
Q

how is arterial blood pressure regulated?

A

by the nervous system

74
Q

what are the arterioles also known as?

A

the resistance vessels of the body

75
Q

when can blood flow change?

A

changes happen locally to redistribute flow to where it is needed e.g. a limb

76
Q

which “tubes” have higher resistance?

A

long narrow tubes have a higher resistance than short wide tubes

  • arterioles have highest resistance
77
Q

why do capillaries not have such high resistance even when they are long narrow tubes?

A
  • there are millions of them
  • resistance is so spread out due to the increased surface area
78
Q

flow distribution regulated at rest

A
  • determined by local metabolic rate in tissues
    e.g. skeletal muscle 20% oxygen consumption
    -> will receive 20% cardiac output
79
Q

what can affect flow distribution?

A
  • movement = standing, sitting, exercising
  • stress
  • things that will change how much oxygen skeletal muscles need to receive
80
Q

how is flow distribution determined?

A
  • by changes in “vascular tone”
  • intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms
81
Q

intrinsic control - myogenic response

A
  • increase in arterial pressure = increased vascular tone = constriction
  • decrease in arterial pressure = decrease in vascular tone = dilatation
82
Q

what acts together to set the basal level of vascular tone?

A
  • myogenic response
  • endothelial secretions
  • vasoactive metabolites
  • temperature
83
Q

what is the myogenic response?

A
  • bayliss myogenic response
  • myocytes depolarize when they are stretched
  • extent of stretchedness depends on how much blood is in the lumen
84
Q

endothelial secretions

A
  • vasoconstrictors (endothelin-1 (ET-1))
  • vasodilators (nitric oxide (NO))
85
Q

what are myocytes?

A

smallest subunit of muscular tissues and organs throughout the body

86
Q

what are the functions of vasoactive metabolites?

A
  • help set basal level of vascular tone
  • metabolic activity of myocardium, skeletal muscle…
  • blood flow is diverted there within seconds
  • H+, K+, ATP, CO2… can be released while exercising and can affect blood vessel diameter
87
Q

temperature and vasodilatation

A
  • specifically close to skin (organ of temp regulation)
  • blood flow here can change >100 fold
  • sympathetic vasoconstrictor fibres
    -> activity influenced by hypothalamic temp-regulating centre
88
Q

blood vessels close to the skin

A
  • dilate with heat = contain more blood close to skin= skin “reddens”
  • constrict with cold = less blood = pale/bluish skin colour
89
Q

why do blood vessels constrict in the cold?

A

to conserve core temperature and warm organs
so blood flow moves to organs and core

90
Q

raynaud´s syndrome

A
  • spasm of small arteries supplying the extremities in response to
    -> cold
    -> stress
    -> most cases unknown
    -> severe = gangrene (skin & tissue death)
91
Q

extrinsic control

A
  • vasomotor nerves
  • vasoactive hormones
  • higher level of control = overrides intrinsic controls to meet needs of the whole body
92
Q

vasomotor nerves

A
  • sympathetic vasoconstrictors = NT (noradrenaline - alpha receptors on vascular myocytes)
  • sympathetic vasodilators (NT = NA or ACh)
  • parasympathetic vasodilators (NT = ACh)
93
Q

vasomotor hormones

A
  • adrenaline -> constriction / dilatrion
  • vasopressin -> ADH -> constriction
  • angiotensin -> constriction
  • atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) -> dilation
  • insulin -> dilation
94
Q

fight or flight & adrenaline

A
  • released by adrenal medulla in adrenal gland
  • enters blood stream -> pumped everywhere due to increased heart rate
  • adrenaline binds to same alpha receptors on smooth muscle cells in arterioles
  • also binds to beta receptors on smooth muscle cells = dilation (instead of restriction) where beta receptors outnumber alpha receptors
  • in skeletal muscles, myocardium (heart muscle cells), liver -> needed for fight or flight
  • blood redistributed from stomach to areas needed for survival -> digestion suppressed
  • body muscles tighten
  • f.o.f = sympathetic nervous system
95
Q

therapeutics for blood flow control

A
  • sodim nitroprusside -> vasodilator that mimicks endothelial NO -> treats: angina
  • sildenafil -> vasodilator that boosts cGMP -> no pathway -> treats: pulmonary arterial hypertension
  • ACE inhibitors -> block effects of angiotensin II -> treats: hypertension
  • antihistamines -> vasoconstrictors
96
Q

how to calculate blood pressure?

A

blood pressure = total peripheral resistance x cardiac output

97
Q

how to calculate cardiac output?

A

cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume

98
Q

what is stroke volume?

A

the amount of blood being pumped

99
Q

how can kidney failure cause excess blood volume to rise?

A
  • kidneys filter blood so excess volume is lost here
  • if dont work -> the excess blood not lost
100
Q

causes of hypertension

A
  • smoking
  • obesity
  • diet
  • exercise
  • genetic (can be inherited)
101
Q

chronic hypertension

A
  • high blood pressure
  • the resistance is greater, and your heart has to work harder to push blood through your body
  • can lead to further cardiovacsular diseases
    -> atherosclerosis
    -> stroke
    -> myocardial infarction
    -> heart failure
    -> renal failure
    -> retinopathy
102
Q

clinical benefits of reducing blood pressure

A
  • 40% reduction of stroke
  • 25% reduction in myocardial infarction
  • > 50% reduction in heart failure
103
Q

how can you lower blood pressure with drugs?

A
  1. block sympathetic nervous system
    reduce effects on heart (beta blockers)
    reduce effecrs on blood vessels (alpha blockers -
    constrict blood vessels)
  2. kidney
    reduce blood volume (dieretics)
  3. hormones
    ACE inhibitors
  4. vasodilation of peripheral resistance arterioles
    Ca2+ channel blockers
104
Q

beta andrenoceptor blockers

A
  • examples: propanolol & atenolol
  • competitive reversible antagonists
  • lower blood pressure by blocking the beta sympathetic tone on heart and reducing renin released from the kidney
  • lower heart rate & stroke volume
  • lower cardiac output
  • could affect the ability to increase heart rate when exercising
105
Q

adverse effects of beta adrenoceptor blockers

A
  • exacerbate asthma
  • reduced ability to exercise
  • hypogylcaemia
  • vivid dreams if propanolol goes into the brain
106
Q

alpha adrenoceptor blockers

A
  • examples: phentolamine, doxazosin, prazosin
  • competitive reversible antagonists
  • reduce blood pressure via drop in sympathetic tone in arterioles (symp. tone = activation of sympathetic NS)
  • reduced peripheral resistance
107
Q

adverse effects of adrenoceptor blockers

A
  • postural hypotension = loss of sympathetic venoconstriction -> lack of blood and oxygen to the brain
  • reflex tachycardia (via baroreceptors)
108
Q

ACE inhibitors

A
  • examples: captopril & enalapril
  • antagiotensin converting enzyme on vascular endothelial surface converts angiotensin I to the active angiotenisn II
  • can reduce the activity of an enzyme called angiotensin-converting enzyme -> the enzyme is responsible for hormones that help control your blood pressure.
109
Q

how do ACE inhibitors lower blood pressure?

A
  1. reduced formation of the vasoconstrictor angiotensin II (reduction in peripheral resistance)
  2. reduced blood volume
110
Q

adverse effects of ACE inhibitors

A
  • generally well tolerated
  • can cause a sudden drop in blood pressure on first dose
  • lead to persistant irritant cough -> due to reduced breakdown of bradykinin (peptide that activated sensory nerves in lung tissue)
111
Q

what percentage of blood is made out of red blood cells?

A

45% (55%= plasma, remianing 1% are white blood cells and platelets)

112
Q

arteries

A

carry blood away from the heart

113
Q

veins

A

carry blood to the heart

114
Q

neurotransmitters of the parasympathetic nervous system? and the effect on heart rate?

A

acetylcholine
decreases HR

115
Q

neurotransmitters of the sympathetic nervous system? and the effect on heart rate?

A

noradrenaline & adrenaline
increases HR

116
Q

what does a decrease in the firing rate of the sympathetic vasoconstrictor neurotransmitter noradrenaline have on boood vessels?

A

vasodilation

117
Q

Which group of receptors are commonly targetted and blocked to lower blood pressure?

A

beta adrenocpetors are commonly targeted to lower blood pressure

118
Q

how do beta blockers help lower blood pressure?

A

they inhibit beta (1) adrenoceptors (which increase hr) and their sympathetic effect on the heart

119
Q

what is a problem with propanolol?

A

it blocks beta(2) receptors as well as beta(1)
this can cause bad bronchospasms in patients with asthma

120
Q

what are the three main types of angina?

A
  • stable
  • unstable
  • variable
121
Q

stable angina

A
  • predictable attacks e.g. during exercise
  • myocardial O2 demand not met
122
Q

unstable angina

A
  • attacks unpredictable
  • coronary atery occlusion due to platelet adhesion to ruptured atherosclerotic plaque
123
Q

variant angina

A
  • unpredictbale attacks
  • coronary artery occlusion by vasospams
124
Q

main causes of heart failure

A
  1. haemodynamic overload = due to excessive pressure on the heart (hypertension…) or excess blood volume on heart due to leaky valves and obesity due to growing amounts of tissue and heart needs to work harder
  2. neurohormonal overload = excessive amount of thyroid horomones
  3. tissue damage = due to myocardial infarction normally
  4. genetics = hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (heart produces excessive hypertrophic response to pressure within the heart)
125
Q

role of cholesterol

A
  • helps allow substances to be incorporated into the cell membrane
  • membrane fluidity and permeability
  • production of steriods and fat-soluble vitamins
126
Q

what can high cholesterol levels lead to?

A

atherosclerosis

127
Q

what is atherosclerosis?

A

where hard, calcified plaques are deposited in the arteries over time and keep growing and developing
- hardening of blood vessels -> lumen is narrower -> restricted blood flow
- the plaques can also dislodge and float elsewhere

128
Q

how many deaths a year due to cardiovascular disease?

A

31%

129
Q

how does physical activity indirectly reduce the risk of coronary heart disease?

A
  • indirectly = does not improve heart health itslef
  • pa helps weight loss, glycaemic control, good bp, lipid profile & insulin sensitivity
  • these combined help reduce the risk
130
Q

How many minutes of moderate intensity exercise is recommended for adults on a weekly basis to keep them active?

A

150

131
Q

How many minutes of vigorous intensity exercise is recommended for adults on a weekly basis to keep them active?

A

75

132
Q

systolic pressure

A
  • pressure experienced by arteries when heart is beating
  • maximum blood pressure when ventricles contract
133
Q

diastolic pressure

A

measures the pressure in your arteries when your heart rests between beats

134
Q

what is angina?

A
  • chest pain
  • due to reduced blood flow to heart muscles
  • warning sign that at risk of heart attack or a stroke

human biology (11 decks)

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