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endocrine system Flashcards

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1
Q

endocrine system function

A
  • helps body maintain homeostasis
  • cell communication for body regulation via chemical messegengers / hormones
  • nervous system and endocrine system
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2
Q

what are endocrine glands?

A
  • collections of cells that make chemical messengers
  • secretory epithelial cells surrounded by vascular network
  • produce hormones into interstitial fluid which will enter the blood stream
  • determined by the receptor expression at the target -> hormones only have an impact on the organs with the receptor
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3
Q

epithelial cells in endocrine system

A

produce the hormones

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4
Q

where can endocrine target receptors be found?

A
  • as part of the epithelial surface like lining of the digestive tract
  • seperate organ like thyroid or pituitary glands
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5
Q

exocrine glands

A
  • open contact with exterior
  • ducts carry secretions to the surface
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6
Q

endocrine glands

A
  • no open contact with exterior
  • no ducts, instead produce hormones secreted into blood (then travel via vascular system)
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7
Q

main components of endocrine system

A
  • pineal gland
  • hypothalamus
  • pituitary gland
  • thyroid gland
  • parathyroid glands
  • thymus
  • adrenal glands
  • pancreas
  • ovary / testis
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8
Q

pituitary gland

A
  • 1cm diameter
  • in sphenoid bone
  • anterior = adenohypophysis
  • posterior = neurohypophysis
  • endocrine gland in the brain
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9
Q

hypothalamus location

A
  • lower part of the dicenphalon
  • superior to pituitary
  • endocrine gland in the brain
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10
Q

infundibulum

A

connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary

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11
Q

role of the hypothalamus

A
  • oversees internal body conditions
  • gets nervous stimuli from receptors throughout the body
  • controls chemical and physical characteristics of blood
  • secretes hormones that regulate pituitary function
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12
Q

hypothalamo-hypophysial tract

A
  • connects the hypothalamus and posterior pituitary
  • communicates via neurons
  • extends through the infundibulum
  • the neurohormones from hypothalamus travel along neurons in tract and are stored in the posterior pituitary until hypothalamus detects they are needed
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13
Q

hypothalamhypophysial portal

A
  • connects the anterior pituitary to the hypothalamus
  • via blood vessels that create direct communication
  • portal blood eventully merges with general circulation
  • receives hormones released from hypothalamus
  • they cause the anterior pit to release its own hormones
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14
Q

regulatory circuits example hypothalamis pituitary thyroid axis

A

axis=when glands signal to each other in a sequence
-> hypothalamis pituitary thyroid axis

  • top level: hypothalamus (produces releasing hormones to stimulate the pituitary
  • intermediate level: pituitary (produces stimulating hormones)
  • target glands: thyroid (produces the hormone)
  • feeds back to hypothalamus
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15
Q

thyroid gland

A
  • large = 20g
  • 2 lobes
  • lateral to trachea
  • inferior to thyroid cartilage
  • connects to isthmus across anterior aspect of the trachea
  • very vascularised (dark red)
  • regulated by the TRH (hypothalamus) & TSH (ant.pit)
  • many follicles
  • produce T3 and T 4 -> stored & released from follicles ot respond to TSH from pituitary
  • iodine needed for thyroid hormone synthesis
  • parafollicular cells: sit next to follicles & needed for calcium homeostasis
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16
Q

TRH

A

thyroid releasing hormone

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17
Q

TSH

A

thyroid stimulating hormone

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18
Q

parathyroid glands

A
  • 4 small glands on posterior of thyroid glands
  • made up of:
    • parathyroid (cheif) cells: small, stain darker, produce PTH
    • oxyphil cells: large, stain lighter
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19
Q

PTH

A

parathyroid hormone

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20
Q

adrenal glands

A
  • produce hormones that help regulate metabolism, immune system, blood pressure…
  • inner medulla: makes epinephrine (adrenaline) & norepinephrine
  • outer cortex: 3 layers - makes steriod hormones
  • layers have distinct roles
  • bottom layer = outermost layer
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21
Q

layers of the adrenal gland and their hormones

A
  • suprenal medulla = adrenaline
  • zona reticularis = androgens
  • zona fasciculata = glucocorticoids (cortisol)
  • zona glomerulosa = mineralcorticoids (aldosterone)
  • capsula
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22
Q

zona fasciculata & cortisol

A

can make too much cortisol because of a pituitary tumour affecting the release of stimulating hormones

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23
Q

pancreas

A
  • lies behind peritoneum
  • between greater curvarture of stomach & duodenum
  • 15cm long
  • exocrine & endocrine
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24
Q

pancrease - exocrine

A

acini produce pancreatic juice carried in duct to small intestine
involved in digestive system

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25
Q

pancrease - endocrine

A

pancreatic islets secrete hormones into circulation

  • regulates nutrient concentration in circulation (insulin & amino acids)
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26
Q

the pancreatic islets

A

each islet has alpha, beta, gamma cells

alpha:
- secrete glucagon if glc levels too low

beta:
- secrete insulin if glc levels too high

gamma:
- secrete somatostatin to inhibit insulin and glucagon

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27
Q

characteristics of cell signalling

A
  1. synthesis of signal
  2. release of signalling molecule by signalling cell: exocytosis, diffusion, cell-cell contact
  3. transport of the signal to the target cell
  4. detect change in receptor protein
  5. change in cellular metabolism, function or development
  6. removal of signal
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28
Q

transport of signals

A

signals can act at short or long-range

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29
Q

endocrine signalling

A

hormone released by endocrine cell and carried in the bloodstream to the target cell

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30
Q

paracrine signalling

A

signalling molecules only affect target cells in close proximity to secreting cells

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31
Q

autocrine signalling

A
  • cells respond to substances that they themselves release
  • only the one cell involved
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32
Q

membrane bound protein signalling

A

signalling between cells bound to each other by membrane bound proteins

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33
Q

G proteins

A
  • bind to GTP or GDP
  • trimeric: composed of three subunits (alpha, beta, gamma)
  • specialised proteins that can activate/inhibit a downstream enzyme to generate an intracellular second message
  • they all have 7 membrane spanning regions with amino group extracellular and carboxyl intracellular
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34
Q

protein hormones

A
  • insulin, GH, TSH
  • synthesised by anterior pi, post.pit, pancreas and parathyroid
  • hydrophilic
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35
Q

steriod hormones

A
  • cortisol, oestrogen
  • synthesised from adrenal cortex, ovaries, testes, placenta
  • hydrophobic
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36
Q

thyroid hormones

A
  • thyroxine
  • synth. from thyroid
  • hydrophobic
  • amino acid derivative
  • T3 and T4
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37
Q

catecholamines

A
  • adrenaline
  • synth. by adrenal medulla
  • hydrophilic
  • amino acid derivative
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38
Q

what would be the difference in a cell producing a peptide hormone compared to a cell producing a steroid hormone?

A
  • peptides are produced in the RER
  • so cells synthesising peptide hormones will have a larger amount of RER
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39
Q

synthesis of polypeptides and proteins

A
  • synthesized in advance (prohormones)
  • require further processing to be activated
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40
Q

storage and release of polypeptides and proteins

A
  • stored in vesicles in cell
  • released via exocytosis
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41
Q

transport of proteins and polypeptides in blood

A

dissolved in plasma
- dont need to be attached to anything

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42
Q

synthesis of steroids

A
  • on demand
  • in a series of reaction pathways from cholesterol
  • adrenal cortex, gonads, placenta
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43
Q

storage and release of steroids

A
  • not stored b4 secretion
  • cannot bind to anything for storage
  • released upon synthesis by simple diffusion
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44
Q

transport of steroids in blood

A

primarily bound to plasma proteins

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45
Q

synthesis of thyroid hormones

A

from tyrosine in advance

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46
Q

storage and release of thyroid hormones

A
  • stored as colloid in thyroid follicles
  • released by a transport protein
47
Q

transoport of thyroid hormones in blood

A

bound to plasma proteins

48
Q

synthesis of catecholamines

A

in advance

49
Q

storage and release of catecholamines

A
  • stored in secretory vesicles
  • released by exocytosis
50
Q

transport of catecholamines in blood

A

freely dissolved

51
Q

how is hormone secretion controlled?

A

by negative feedback loops
- response driven
- axis driven

sometimes positive feedback e.g. childbirth

52
Q

response driven negative feedback

A
  • circulating levels of the product inhibits secretion of the hormone facilitating the synthesis of the product
  • e.g. feedback for glands that control blood glucose
53
Q

axis driven negative feedback

A
  • multiple feedback loops working simultaneously
  • allows for fine tuning
54
Q

what is feed-forward control?

A
  • a direct effect of the stimulus on the control system before the action of the feedback signal occurs
  • mediated by ANS
  • allows the human body to prepare and adapt for changes in the environment
  • example: lactation
55
Q

lactation and feed-forward control

A
  • hear baby crying
  • oxytocin released from posterior pituitary (anticipation)
  • sucking (stimulus) -> more oxytocin released + prolactin
  • oxytocin stimulates own production & release in + feedback
  • mother feels thirsty
56
Q

endocrine control of fluid & salt balance

A
  • response is to changes in plasma volume or osmotic concentrations
  • water moves passively via diffusion through aquaporin channels
  • body water + electrolyte content rise: dietary gains exceed environmental losses
  • body water + electrolyte content falls: losses exceed gains
57
Q

neural control of sodium and water balance

A
  • hypothalamic thirst centre
  • stimulated by:
    • increase in plasma osmolarity
    • decrease in plasma volume
  • detected by osmoreceptors within hypothalamus -> shrink when osmolality increases
  • stimulates hypothalamic thirst center
58
Q

endocrine control of sodium and water balance

A
  • ADH
  • aldosterone
  • natriuretic peptides
59
Q

ADH and water regulation

A
  • also called vasopressin
  • main stimulus: increase osmolarity
  • increase membrane permeability in collecting ducts of the renal tubules
  • more water can then be reabsorbed
  • decreases water excretion by the kidneys by increasing water reabsorption in the collecting ducts,
60
Q

what kind of hormone is ADH? how is it synthesized?

A

peptide hormone

  • 9 a.a
  • synthesized as pre-pro-hormone by ribosome on ER
  • signal peptide cleaved as prohormone is transported into the ER
  • prohormone packaged in secretory granules in ER / golgi. stored in posterior pit.
  • increased plasma osmolarity results in change in membrane permeability & influx of Ca2+
  • prohormones are proteolytically cleaved and ADH is secreted
61
Q

ADH receptors

A

ADH V2 receptors:

  • basolateral membrane of collecting tubule cells in kidney receptors
  • are G- protein coupled receptors

ADH V1 receptors:

  • blood vessels
  • causes constriction
  • leads to increased systematic vascular resistance
62
Q

net effect of ADH

A
  • decreases blood osmolality -> water reabsorbed by body
  • increased blood volume
63
Q

circadian rhythm and ADH

A
  • ADH secretion increased during the night
  • reduced urine production overnight
64
Q

aldosterone

A
  • regulates sodium excretion & reabsorption
  • synthesized in zona glomerulosa of adrenal cortex
  • stimulates sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion by the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
  • stimulated by decreased blood pressure or volume
  • activates the renin-angiotensin system
  • promotes reabsorption of sodium and water in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
  • stimulates ADH production
65
Q

layers of the adrenal cortex

A
  • zona glomerulosa
  • zona fasciculata
  • zona reticularis
66
Q

where is the adrenal cortex?

A
  • outer part of adrenal gland
  • each located on the top of each kidney
67
Q

actions of cortisol

A
  • affects most cells in the body
  • maintains of blood glc during fasting
  • increase availability of blood glc to the brain
  • increases lipolysis (adipose tissue), proteolysis (muscle) + stim. gluconeogenesis (liver)
  • levels differ during the day
  • catabolic -> stimulates breakdown of molecules to provide energy

acts on:

  • liver
  • muscle
  • adipose tissue
  • pancreas
68
Q

corticosteroid drugs

A
  • mixture of glucocorticoid (cortisol) and mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) effects
  • for adrenal insufficiency
  • as an anti-inflammatory / immunosuppressant (asthma, eczema)
69
Q

cortisol levels rise when respond to an acute stress like sudden illness. what would be a problem for people who take regular corticosteroids?

A
  • would need a higher dosage
  • increased bp if on long term steroids
  • more prone to infection
  • worse immune system
70
Q

thyroid gland histology

A
  • made of many spherical follicles
  • follicles lind with a single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells = follicular cells
  • follicles filled with colloid (made of thyroglobulin: stores thyroid hormone)
  • a highly vascular gland
  • also has scattered parafollicular cells that secrete calcitonin
71
Q

iodine

A

needed for thyroid hormone synthesis

72
Q

thyroid hormones

A
  • synthesized from tyrosine (a.a derivatives)
  • triiodothyronine (T3)
  • tetraiodothyronine (T4)
73
Q

thyroglobulin

A
  • T3 and T4 synthesised & stored here
  • a protein
  • synthesised by ER and golgi of follicular cells
  • large glycoproteins
  • contain 70 tyrosines
  • exocytosed into thyroid follicle lumen once formed
74
Q

thyroid hormone regulation

A
  • production stimulated by thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus
  • TSH from ant. pit increases T3 and T4 secretion
  • T3 and T4 inhibit TSH and TRH production by negative feedback
75
Q

cognital hypothyroidism

A
  • inadequate thyroid hormone production
  • can cause short stature
  • delayed puberty
  • excess + thicker skin production
  • detect early in babies
  • thyroid hormone levels normalised by 3 weeks old
76
Q

what is hyperthyroidism?

A
  • excessive activity of thyroid hormones produced & circulating in bloodstream
  • autoimmune origin
77
Q

symptoms of hyperthyroidism

A
  • high metabolic rate
  • increased skin temp + more sweating
  • thickening of skin
  • deeper voice
  • tremor
  • weight loss
78
Q

radioiodine.

A
  • drug used for hyperthyroidism
  • given orally & taken up by the thyroid
  • as single dose, lasts 2 months
  • decreases the activity of the thyroid as radioiodine emits short range beta radiation -> targets the follicle cells (produce the thyroid hormones)
  • treatments eventually damages follicular cells & can lead to hypothyroidism
79
Q

what is the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands?

A

endocrine: releases directly into the bloodstream
exocrine: releases secretions into a duct which then empties onto an epithelial surface (e.g. skin or lumen of a hollow organ)

80
Q

what are primary endocrine organs?

A

solely responsible for hormone secretion

81
Q

examples of primary endocrine organs

A
  • hypothalamus
  • parathyroid glands
  • ovaries
  • testes
  • pancreas
  • adrenal glands
  • pineal glands
  • pituitary glands
82
Q

what are secondary endocrine organs?

A

responsible for other biological processes and hormone secretion to support and sustain their primary functions

83
Q

examples of secondary endocrine organs

A
  • kidney
  • liver
  • heart
84
Q

what are the 4 main classifications of cell signalling by extracellular molecules

A
  • endocrine signalling
  • paracrine signalling
  • autocrine signalling
  • membrane bound protein interactions
85
Q

structure of a typtical G-protein coupled receptor

A
  • contain a single polypeptide chain
  • 350-400 a.a residues
  • 7 membrane spanning alpha-helices
  • have an extracellular N-terminal and intracellular C-terminal
86
Q

examples of G-protein coupled receptors

A
  • adrenoreceptors
  • dopamine receptors
  • purine receptors
87
Q

what is cell signalling amplification?

A
  • refers to the process where a molecule binds to a receptor which then activates one or more second messenger pathways
  • these activate multiple effector pathways and stimulate a response
  • a multi-step signal relay pathway -> allow for specific amplification of receptor-binding events
88
Q

long feedback loops

A
  • very sensitive
  • use negative feedback from peripheral glands -> inihibit hypothalamic and/ pit. hormones
  • example: where hormones synthesized in target cells -> act on ant.pit. directly or indirectly on hypothalamic receptors -> inihibit production
89
Q

short-loop feedback

A
  • exists between pit gland and hypothalamus of brain
  • works over shorter distance
  • can restore homeostasis faster
  • insensitive
  • only functions if target organs destroyed, removed or non-functional
  • example: pt. hormones send signals to hypothalamus
90
Q

ultra-short loop feedback

A
  • paracrine or autocrine effects
  • cell acts upon itself or the adjacent cells
  • release or hormone inhibits own production
  • example: when hypothalamic releasing hormone acts on hypothalamic receptors to inhibit their releases
91
Q

If the plasma concentration outside the cell is higher than that inside the cell, what state would the cell be in? What will happen to correct this disparity?

A
  • water will diffuse into cell down the hypertonic osmotic gradient
  • cell is hypotonic
  • water will diffuse into the cell to correct this disparity
  • cell will swell
92
Q

positive feedback loop

A
  • feedback / output signal from loop increases action of affected system
  • less common
  • example: stretching of cervix during childbirth
93
Q

what is a feed-forward control loop and why would this be beneficial from an evolutionary perspective?

A
  • a loop where the control system before the action of the feedback signal occurs is directly affected by the stimulus b4 the feedback signal occurs
  • beneficial for evolutionary perspective since it allows the human body to adapt to possible changes in the environment
  • example: increased heart rate when anticipating exercise
94
Q

role of calcintonin

A
  • help regulate calcium levels in blood
  • produced by c cells in thyroid gland
  • it is a hormone
95
Q

What hormones do the follicular cells produce and secrete, and what are the functions of these hormones?

A
  • thyroid hormones T3 and T4
    T3: triiodothyronine
    T4: thyroxine
  • help increase basal metabolic rate
96
Q

4 common symptoms of diabetes

A
  • increased need to urinate (essp. at night)
  • increased constant thirst
  • tiredness
  • unplanned weight loss
97
Q

Metformin is a commonly prescribed drug to treat Type II Diabetes. Which family of drugs does Metformin belong to and what are its’ main actions?.

A
  • is a biguanide
  • used to treat type 2 diabetes -> acts on gluconeogensis in liver (increased when you have T2D)
  • stimulates increase in glc uptake in skeletal muscles by reducing insulin resistance
  • carb absorption decreased + fatty acid oxidation increased
  • preventing the liver from converting fats and amino-acids into glucose
  • works to increase AMP -> results in an increase in AMP-activated protein kinase -> activates nuclear receptors -> inhibit expression of genes that are important for gluconeogenesis -> decreases glc levels
98
Q

hypothyroidism

A

decreased thyroid levels

99
Q

treatment for hypothyroidism

A
  • levothyroxine
  • liothyronine
100
Q

treatment of diabetes mellitus

A
  • insulin essential for treatment of T1D and T2D
  • achieve normal blood glc levels
  • normal blood glc levels in humans = 4mM (4.4-6.1mM)
  • after a meal blood glc may reach up to 7.8mM
  • human insulin made by recombinant DNA tech
  • insulin destroyed in gut so given parenterally
  • different insulin formulations have different functions
  • fast & short-acting sol
101
Q

different types of human insulin to treat diabetes

A
  • fast & short-acting soluble insulin
  • intermediate-acting insulin isophane insulin
  • long acting forms like insulin zinc formulations
102
Q

hypoglycaemia

A

low blood glc levels

103
Q

hypoglycaemic agents

A
  • biguanides such as metformin
  • used in T2D
  • reduce gluconeogenesis in liver -> is increased in T2D
  • increase glc uptake in skeletal muscle
  • reduce carb absorption
  • increased fatty acid ox
  • can anorexia and encourage weight loss
  • can be combined with drugs which stimulate insulin release
  • results in activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMP Kinase) -> increases nuclear receptors that inhibits expression of genes that are important for gluconeogensis
104
Q

sulphonylureas

A
  • reduce blood glc levels
  • stimulate appetite and can lead to weight gain
  • stimulate insulin secretion
  • pancreatic beta cells need to work
  • block ATP sensitive K+ channels in beta cells -> depolarisation -> insulin secretion
  • mimic effect of glc
105
Q

thiazolidinediones

A
  • ploglitazone
  • increase insulin sensitivity
  • lowers blood glc in T2D
  • reduces amount of exogenous insulin needed to sustain a certain blood glc level
  • reduces hepatic glc output and increases glc uptake into muscle in response to insulin
  • reduces blood glc, insulin and fatty acid concentrations
106
Q

incretin mimetics

A
  • exenatide
  • incretins = stimulate insulin secretion, peptide hormones released from the gut (e.g. GLP-1)
  • exenatide can mimic GLP-1 which is secreted after a meal and provides an early stimulus for insulin secretion
  • lowers blooc glc after a meal by increasing insulin secretion and suppressing glucagon secretion
107
Q

gliptins

A
  • sitagliptin & vildagliptin
  • incretins that block DPP-4 (enzyme that terminates actions of incretins)
  • endogenous incretins are potentiated
  • lowers blood glc
  • used in T2D
108
Q

adrenal gland structures + secreted hormones

A
  • the medulla secretes catecholamines
  • cortex secretes adrenal steroids
  • zona glomerulosa secretes mineralcorticoids
  • zona fasciculata secretes glucorticoids
109
Q

adrenal steroids

A
  • glucocorticoids
  • mineralocorticoids
  • progestins
  • androgens
  • estrogens
110
Q

mineralcorticoids

A
  • regulate water and electrolyte balance
  • main one is aldosterone or fludrocortisone
  • affect carb and protein metabolism
  • main clinical use is replacemnet therapy in addison´s disease -> decreased aldosterone secretion
111
Q

actions of glucocorticoids

A
  • increase blood glc
  • help regulate glc metabolism
  • e.g. hydrocortisone, prednisolone, demaxamethasone
  • metabolic actions
  • regulatory actions
  • inflammatory and immunity actions
  • mediators
112
Q

clinical uses of glucocorticoids

A
  • replacement therapy for adrenal failure
  • anti-inflammatory / immunosuppressive therapy
  • asthma
  • inflammatory conditions of skin and eye..
  • severe allergic reactions
  • cancer
113
Q

what is antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?

A

A hormone that helps blood vessels constrict and helps the kidneys control the amount of water and salt in the body

human biology (11 decks)

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