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PPL 2023 > Navigation > Flashcards

Navigation Flashcards

1
Q

Meridian of Longitude

A

Semi-circle joining North pole to South pole, e.g. Prime Meridian, Anti Meridian

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2
Q

Parallel of Latitude

A

Line parallel to equator going around the globe, shorter as you move N/S from equator

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3
Q

Position in terms of longitude/latitude

A

Based on which of the lines you are on.
So your longitude is which line of longitude you are on, i.e. how far East/West of Greenwich.

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4
Q

Great circle vs small circle
Examples

A

A great circle is a circle around Earth with the centre of the Earth at it’s centre.
Any other circle on the planet surface is a small circle.
Equator is a great circle, all other parallels of latitude are small circles.

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5
Q

Relevance of great circles to navigation

A

The shortest distance between any two points is along a great circle which connects them.

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6
Q

Rhumb line

A

A curve that crosses all longitudes at the same angle.
May look straight on a chart, but is not the shortest route.

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7
Q

Lambert Projection
- Description
- Useage

A

Conical projection
Used for mid latitudes

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8
Q

Mercator Projection
- Description
- Useage

A

Cylindrical projection (vertical)
Used for large regular maps

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9
Q

Transverse Mercator Projection
- Description
- Useage

A

Cylindrical projection (horizontal)
Used for UK maps with fixed meridians

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10
Q

Apparent time

A

Based on position of the sun
e.g. Northerly shadow at midday

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11
Q

Mean time

A

An averaged out version of apparent time to account for changes in day length over the year

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12
Q

Convert time difference to longitude difference

A

360deg == 24 hours
15deg == 1 hour
1 deg == 4 mins
15’ == 1 min (say 15 mins == 1min)

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13
Q

UTC
- Stands for
- Description

A

Universal Time Coordinated
Coordinated global time using nuclear clocks rather than astronomy

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14
Q

Features of UTC

A

Has 24 hours/day, 60 mins/hour.
But 59-60 seconds per min to match solar time (62 seconds in last minute)

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15
Q

International date line

A

Located around 180deg E/W longitude. Not a straight line.
Different date on each side of the line

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16
Q

Which way does date change when crossing international date line?

A

West to East -> Lose a day
East to West -> Add a day
[Cumulative effect of it later in the day as you move East]

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17
Q

Definition of sunrise/sunset

A

When the upper limb of the sun is first/last visible

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18
Q

Definition of civil twilight

A

When the sun is 6 degrees below either horizon

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19
Q

Isogonal

A

Line along which compass variation is the same

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20
Q

Agonic line

A

Isogonal with variation of zero

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21
Q

3 different types of heading

A

True
Magnetic (adjusted for variation)
Compass (adjusted for variation and deviation)

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22
Q

How is compass dip offset?

A

Pivot point of compass is adjusted, differently depending on hemisphere.

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23
Q

Errors caused by compass pivot point

A

Accelerating @ 90/270 degrees will create error.
Turning through 180/360 degrees will create error.

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24
Q

ISA
- Full info

A

International Standard Atmosphere
1013.25 hPa
15degC @ AMSL
1225 g/m(3) air density

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25
Q

ISA temperature increment
Cap

A

2 degrees C every 1000ft, up to 36,000ft (-57 degrees C)

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26
Q

Effect on altimeter if temperature is lower than forecast by ISA

A

Cold air has lower energy, lower pressure, so altimeter thinks you are higher than you are.
Altimeter will over-read, so you fly lower than you think and risk ground strike.

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27
Q

Pressure altitude

A

Altitude shown with 1013hPa pressure setting

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28
Q

Density altitude
- Calculation

A

Pressure altitude adjusted for OAT difference to ISA based on 120ft per 1degC.
Calculate expected ISA temp based on pressure altitude (2degC per 1000ft).
Higher temp increases density altitude.

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29
Q

CRP-1
- True altitude from indicated altitude

A

i) Calculate pressure altitude by adjusting altimeter setting to 1013
ii) Set air temp against pressure altitude in CRP-1 window
iii) Read indicated altitude (not pressure altitude) in inner wheel against true altitude in outer

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30
Q

Semi-circular rule

A

360-179: Odd
180-359: Even
VFR: +5
Skip 420 for 430 then big gaps

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31
Q

Transition layer minimum size

A

500ft

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32
Q

CAS/RAS
- Stands for
- Definition

A

Calibrated/rectified air speed
Adjusted IAS to account for instrument error & position (of pitot) error
Utilise calibration table in pilots operating handbook

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33
Q

CRP-1
- TAS from CAS

A

Line up pressure altitude and OAT in Air Speed window.
Read off TAS in outer ring from CAS in inner ring.

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34
Q

CRP-1
- Drift calculation (wind-up method)

A

Blue dot will be the destination.
Mark wind by setting wind direction on wheel and placing blue dot on wind velocity in lower grid - cross at origin.
Now set cross to target of heading, by setting wheel to heading and lining cross up with TAS.
Read off velocity to blue dot and drift to figure out heading.

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35
Q

CRP-1
- Crosswind component calculation

A

Set wind direction on wheel and blue dot to origin of grid.
Mark off wind velocity with ‘x’.
Set wheel to runway direction and read off crosswind component.

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36
Q

CRP-1
- Speed/distance/time calculation

A

If given speed, set 60 minutes on inner circle against speed on outer circle. Then # minutes on inner circle lines up with relevant distance on outer circle.
Or set a given distance and time up on outer and inner circles and read off 60 minutes.

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37
Q

Components of fuel requirements (7)

A

i) Taxi fuel
ii) Trip fuel
iii) Contingency fuel
iv) Alternate fuel (furthest of 2 alts)
v) Final reserve fuel (45mins SEP, 20 mins heli.)
vi) Minimum additional (15 min holding)
vii) Extra fuel (PIC discretion)

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38
Q

Contingency fuel amount

A

Greater of 20 minutes or:
i) 5% of planned trip (or 5% of remaining if re-calculating in flight);
ii) 3% of planned trip if you have en-route alternate (not allowed for helicopters).

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39
Q

CRP-1
- Fuel per hour calculation

A

Similar to speed/distance/time but with fuel on outer circle instead of distance

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40
Q

CRP-1
- Conversions

A

Set km/M/ltr amount on circle to km/M/ltr marker, read off circle against relevant unit marker.

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41
Q

CRP-1
- Conversions with specific gravity

A

Set litres of fuel on outer circle to km/M/ltr marker. Use cursor to read off from specific gravity (kgs or lbs) to weight on inner circle.

42
Q

Flight plan form
- Flight rules
- Type of flight
- Cruising speed
- Level

A

Flight rules: “V” for VFR
Type of flight: “G” for general aviation
Cruising speed: “N0105” for 105kts (nautical miles) (TAS)
Level: “A025” for altitude 2,500ft

43
Q

2 principal means of visual cross country navigation

A
  • Dead reckoning
  • Map reading
44
Q

Markings for dead reckoning

A

Start @ ground position, air position is nil wind plot, DR is position adjusted for drift

45
Q

Methods for getting initial fix

A

i) Set a heading point c. 4nm from aerodrome in direction of journey
ii) Turn left and fly overhead runway >1,000ft (ATC may not allow)
iii) Estimated initial track

46
Q

Position Line

A

A line identified on chart that you could be anywhere along, need another reference to calculate precise position

47
Q

Action to take if lost

A

Set transponder to 0030 and contact D&D on 121.5

48
Q

Assumed error on heading and distance to establish likely area of location

A

+/- 30 degrees on heading
+/- 10% distance

49
Q

Overall process for track corrections

A

i) Establish track error (TE)
ii) Calculate closing angle (CA)
iii) Adjust heading by TE + CA

50
Q

TMG
- Stands for
- Definition

A

Track Made Good
This is the ground path you have actually travelled over

51
Q

1 in 60 rule

A

Over 60nm, every 1 degree off heading results in missing target by 1nm

52
Q

Ratio rule

A

CA based on distance left relative to distance complete:
- Same distance: CA = TE
- Half the distance: CA = 2 x TE
- Twice the distance: CA = 0.5 x TE

53
Q

Inverse Ratio Rule

A

To correct at 1/x way point alter heading by CA * x.

54
Q

Utilising inverse ratio rule

A

Can draw 5 degree and 10 degree spread headings from the destination towards start point and mark quarters along the intended track.
Then can easily see CA and proportion of track completed.

55
Q

Drawback to inverse ratio rule

A

Can only make one correction per leg of the journey, so only suitable for short distances.

56
Q

Standard Closing Angle Method

A

Use a pre-prepared chart of 1 minute and 2 minute standard closing angles for different air speeds, that will close 1nm of distance

57
Q

En-route diversion - 60 degree method

A

To get around an area (e.g. thunderstorm) en-route, turn 60 degrees then back on heading when you can get past.
Once past it turn 60 degrees again and fly for same time as previous leg.
Then time lost is equal to the time of each of the 60 degree legs.

58
Q

Chart estimates

A

Thumb is 10nm on 1:500k, 5nm on 1:250k.
Hand-span is 60nm on 1:500k, 30nm on 1:250k.

59
Q

ELT frequencies

A

121.5 and 243 MHz

60
Q

Personal Locator Beacon frequencies

A

406 MHz and 121.5 (not monitored)

61
Q

Radar range

A

Range in nm = sqrt(1.5 * height in feet)
[+ if appropriate sqrt(1.5 * height of radar station in feet)]

62
Q

Primary radar drawbacks

A

Only operates on the beam it is directed at.
Subject to clutter (e.g. from rain, clouds).
Blind spots
Uneven returns from different aircraft.

63
Q

Altitude type broadcast by Mode C transponder

A

Pressure altitude

64
Q

Transponder Mode S Elementary

A
  • Aircraft identity automatically presented to radar controller
  • Altitude reporting to 25ft
  • Aircraft on ground or in air
  • 24 bit data resolution
65
Q

Transponder Mode S Enhanced

A
  • Altitude in Flight Management System
  • Roll & track information
  • Groundspeed
  • Magnetic heading
  • IAS and mach
  • ACAS information
66
Q

ADS-B
- Stands for
- Description

A

Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast
Data sent out from GPS unit automatically derived from onboard GPS receivers.

67
Q

Transponder code 7010

A

Aerodrome traffic pattern - only select if instructed by ATC

68
Q

Transponder code 2000

A

IFR equivalent of code 7000

69
Q

How many satellites required for 3d or 2d gps fix?

A

3d: 4 satellites
2d: 3 satellites

70
Q

2 types of GPS augmentation

A
  • Receiver (RAIM) or Aircraft (ABAS) systems use redundant satellite to correct errors
  • Satellite systems (SBAS) provide correction info via satellites themselves
71
Q

Nature of GPS signals

A

Line of sight to satellite, so can be shielded by terrain at low levels.
Handheld units in aircraft can be masked by the aircraft structure.

72
Q

Information on satellite interference

A

Via NOTAMs

73
Q

VOR

A

VHF Omni-directional range

74
Q

Advantages & disadvantages of VOR

A
  • Not susceptible to interference
  • Not susceptible to night effect
  • But LOS needed so can be blocked by terrain
75
Q

VOR range

A

Range = sqrt(1.5 * height in feet)

76
Q

How does VOR work?

A

Transmits two waves:
i) Omnidirectional reference wave
ii) Variable phase rotating uniformly with phase varying over 360 degrees
Receiver compares phase of two waves to determine heading

77
Q

What direction figure is given by VOR?

A

QDR - Magnetic bearing from the station to the receiver

78
Q

What is VOR radial?

A

A line on which QRM from VOR is constant (125 radial is line drawn at a heading of 125 from the VOR)

79
Q

General use of VOR indicator

A

Set course index based on course you want to fly to or from the VOR.
Set heading roughly in right direction and from/to flag should be as you expect.
Dots either side of the centre line show deviation of position (2 degrees per dot) from the set course.
To correct, if indicator is to the right, need to turn to the right (track more right than the set course).

80
Q

VOR VHF frequencies

A

108-117.95 MHz

81
Q

DME
- Stands for
- Frequency type

A

Distance Measuring Equipment
UHF (962 to 1,213 MHz)

82
Q

VOR/DME on chart

A

VOR shown as a compass rose.
DME written if there is also a DME there.

83
Q

How does DME work?

A

Uses secondary radar.
Signal from aircraft is bounced back from the DME unit and the time delay used to calculate distance.

84
Q

What does DME display?

A

Distance (slant range) but also sometimes closing speed and time to intercept.

85
Q

DME limitations

A

100 aircraft per DME unit

86
Q

NDB

A

Non-directional beacon

87
Q

ADF

A

Automatic direction finder

88
Q

How does NDB/ADF work?

A

NDB broadcasts in all directions, ADF detects which direction it is coming from

89
Q

NDB frequency type

A

LF/MF range
280 - 535 kHz

90
Q

NDB disadvantages

A

Thunderstorms redirect signal
Night effect
Interference from other NDBs
Coastal effect (beams curve around coast)
Turning error: takes time to adjust when turning

91
Q

ADF aerial system

A

A loop aerial and sense aerial together figure out direction of signal

92
Q

ADF setting - ANT/REC

A

Switches off the sense aerial to maximise audio signal but lose direction ability.
Don’t select when in use or in conjunction with BFO/CW4

93
Q

ADF setting - BFO/CW

A

Beat frequency oscillator/carrier wave - special setting to demodulate signal from A0/A1 NDBs for identification (turn off after identified)

94
Q

ADF setting - Test

A

Momentarily deflects ADF needle, it will return to previous position if working.
[Alternatively ANT/REC may push direction to 90 degrees if no test button]

95
Q

Using ADF to steer “to”

A

Track required is that shown by ADF.
Adjust heading to account for wind then ADF display should remain constant.
If far away correct to regain correct track, if closer consider adjusting to new track.

96
Q

Using ADF to steer “from”

A

Need to establish a suitable track away initially and then correct to keep ADF in the right direction

97
Q

3 types of ADF display

A

RBI (Relative Bearing Indicator): 360 in line with aircraft, displays relative bearing to NDB
RMI (Relative Magnetic Indicator): Rotating magnetic card, indicator shows magnetic bearing to NDB
Rotatable card ADF: Card can be turned so choose either of the 2 approaches.

98
Q

VHF direction finding report types

A

QDM - Magnetic direction to station
QDR - Magnetic direction from station
QTE - True bearing from station

99
Q

Class of VHF direction finding results

A

Class A: +/- 2 degrees
Class B: +/- 5 degrees
Class C: +/- 10 degrees
Class D: Worse than class C

100
Q

VHF direction finding disadvantages

A

Not subject to night effect, thunderstorms, coastal effect.
Is affected by site and propagation errors

101
Q

Tilt of earth’s axis from plane of orbit around the sun

A

66.5 degrees

102
Q

On 1:250,000 chart, what is maximum altitude of information on chart

A

FL55 or 5,000ft

PPL 2023 (11 decks)

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