Nature Of Government-Ideology

Question 1

what is autocracy- tsars

Answer 1

Autocracy is government through one individual with absolute authority. Tsarism was the form that autocracy took in Russia from the Middle Ages through to 1917. The Russian autocrat was the tsar a Russian equivalent of a king. Russia had been ruled by tsars for centuries. From 1613 onwards, all the tsars who ruled belonged to a single dynasty (royal family), the Romanovs.

Question 2

how was autocracy justified

Answer 2

It is very simplistic to consider the tsars as essentially selfish people, just because they kept power to themselves. Increasingly during the nineteenth century, they and their supporters used ideology to justify autocratic power as a good system of government which benefitted the Tsars as well as the peoples of the Russian Empire. Their ideology was not just about the preservation of their power – it was about the preservation of their power for the benefit of all.

Question 3

purpose of the three pillars of autocracy

Answer 3

The purpose of these principles was to legitimise and unique ‘changeless’ nature of the Russian system of Tsarism, believing this would preserve Russian greatness. Tsars and their supporters genuinely believed these three principals were for the benefit of Russia for a number of reasons outlined below, and they all sought [sometimes in differing ways] to uphold the Three Pillars.

Question 4

orthodoxy 1/3 pillars

Answer 4

Orthodoxy legitimised the ‘changeless’ nature of Russia. At its simplest it meant a firm faith in God, as traditional Russia had always had – in opposition to other ideologies. The core belief was that God had made the world how it was and, as a result, the world should remain that way. Similarly, the Church continued to practice superstitious beliefs which had barely changed since the medieval era. For instance, the reverence of icons in icon corners which all Orthodox Russians would have in their home.

Question 5

the values orthodoxy represented

Answer 5

*To spread the message of divine will it was believed that the Tsar was anointed by God and so their authority could not be challenged. Russia had been blessed by God with the Tsarist system and so the Russian people must obey their Tsar. Orthodox Christians were taught that conditions on Earth were decided by God and that they should not be questioned. This garnered the impression of Russian uniqueness.
*Orthodoxy also brought responsibilities with it: namely, it was seen as the Tsar’s duty to protect Orthodox Christians. the importance of protecting practicing Orthodox Christians, especially those who lived under foreign powers such as the Islamic Ottoman Empire

Question 6

autocracy 2/3 pillars

Answer 6

Autocracy refers to rule by one person, the Tsar, meaning emperor. This was contrasted to democracy (power to the people), and aristocracy, (rule by elites). The principle of autocracy was that if God appoints the Tsar, the Tsar requires absolute power and the total submission of his people. The Tsars had absolute powers with no legal limits on their authority.

Question 7

why autocracy was justified; parenalism

Answer 7

Supporters of the regime and propagandists noted this came with responsibility. The Tsar would not just act as a self-interested autocrat, but a ‘little father’ of his people. The Tsar was supposed to act in a paternalistic manner whereby he made decisions for the benefit of his people. The Tsar was often referred to as the ‘little father’ of his people. The analogy of a father-child relationship is a useful one to understand this aspect of Tsarism. The Tsar was supposed to act as the ‘father’ of his people, making the best decisions on their behalf. Whilst his ‘children’ – the Russian people – were supposed to be loyal, obedient, and wholly unable to make the right decisions on their own.

Question 8

why was autocracy justified, opposition to political change

Answer 8

In the light of Western liberalism and revolution, Tsarism stood in stark contrast to the political developments going on in Western Europe. Supporters of Tsarism argued that developments in Western Europe would lead to chaos and political instability. In particular, Russia stood in contrast to constitutional monarchy [rules limiting monarch’s powers], as established in Britain since the early 1700s; republicanism [a system of government with no monarchy] as established in France after the French revolution of 1789. Russians looked on these political changes as things that caused chaos. Consider, for instance, the English Republican period as an example of the chaos that could result from the overthrow of a stable monarchy.

Question 9

why was autocracy justified. practicalities

Answer 9

The Russian Empire was so vast and diverse that it required one individual to rule with an iron fist. If power was divided it would lead to chaos and inefficiency.

Question 10

nationality, 3/3 pillars

Answer 10

Nationality meant Russianism. Russia, according to this philosophy was unique. This was partly a consequence of Orthodoxy, but also a product of their geography and history. The basics of this idea were true: Russia occupied a unique position geographically which stretched from Eastern Europe to the Pacific Ocean. Furthermore, politically Russia had followed a distinctive path from the West and, as evidenced by Russian victory in 1812 over Napoleon, it seems to have been successful. For Russia to continue to be a great power, Russianism must be promoted throughout the empire.

Question 11

the limitations of nationality

Answer 11

The majority of people within the Russian empire were of other ethnicity groups. Relations between these were not always harmonious. This philosophy had implications in terms of how Russia treated these – attempts to ‘Russify’ were common. Those ethnic groups deemed separatist were ‘Russified’ in an attempt to integrate them into Russian culture.

Question 12

autocracy in practice, alexander II reforms

Answer 12

introduced a variety of reforms that introduced wholesale changes to Russia’s system. Emancipation freed the serfs, legal reforms gave people more rights, education reforms gave people more access to ideas. Yet, none of Alexander II’s proposals limited the authority of the Tsar

Question 13

autocracy in practice, alexander III manifesto on unshakable autocracy 1881

Answer 13

The Manifesto, published shortly after Alexander II’s assassination pledged that Alexander III would uphold the Three Pillars and would not introduce reforms.

Question 14

autocracy in practice, Nicholas II senseless dreams speech

Answer 14

in 1895, delivered what has become known as the ‘Senseless Dreams Speech’. Addressing leaders of local government, Nicholas stated that those dreaming of democratic reform in Russia had ‘senseless dreams’.

Question 15

Nicholas II fundamental laws 1906

Answer 15

• Nicholas II suffered a crisis in 1905 with the effects of the Russo-Japanese War and the popular spontaneous revolution that broke out. After he had regained control, Nicholas decided to introduce the Fundamental Laws of 1906 establishing that the Tsar continued to have ultimate authority, despite the introduction of the Duma [Parliament].

Question 16

communists and marxism

Answer 16

The communist’s justification for their rule was entirely different from the Tsars. The Communist dictatorship stemmed from the philosophical writings of Karl Marx in the nineteenth century. His ideas inspired revolutionary opponents to Tsarism.

Question 17

system of class conflict, key principle of marxism

Answer 17

History was a scientific process which evolves through a system of class conflict. In each stage of History there is a ruling class who control the ‘means of production’ and a subordinate class who ‘work’ the means of production and are exploited an oppressed. Eventually, these competing classes would have different interests and one would overthrow the other.

Question 18

anti capitalism as a Marxism key principle

Answer 18

Marx believed that the working class [sometimes called proletariat] never received their just rewards in a capitalist system. Because of ownership and profit incentives, the capitalist classes tried to maximise their returns by keeping wages low. As a result, the working class were exploited.

Question 19

economic determinism, Marxism key principles

Answer 19

Economic determinism refers to the relationship between the economy and the political/social structure of a society. Essentially, it maintains that the economy of a society determines the social/political structure of a society.

Question 20

superstructure Marxism key principles

Answer 20

The notion that everything in society is determined by a ruling elite – in this case the capitalist classes. According to Marxists, capitalists control our ideas through various institutions. For instance, religion acts as the ‘opium of the masses’; laws protect private property; the political system ensures capitalists keep power.

Question 21

false class consciousness, Marxism key principles

Answer 21

The consequence of the superstructure is that the working class develop false class consciousness – the notion that they are not aware of the exploitation they are suffering. Workers’ sense of their own exploitation is dulled by the superstructure.

Question 22

importance of revolution Marxism key principles

Answer 22

Since the economic base determines the superstructure, real change could not be brought about by reform. Only revolution could bring about change by transforming the economic base

Question 23

marx theory of history/ the inevitability of communism

Answer 23

. Karl Marx believed the History of all human societies in the History of class conflict. As the economy of a society changes, a new class is created and eventually that class demands political power. Likewise, Marx believed Capitalism contained the seeds of its own destruction. The inherent inequalities built into a capitalist system, according to Marx, would inevitably lead to a class-conscious working class which unites and overthrows the capitalist classes.

Question 24

what is marxism-leninism

Answer 24

Lenin was a firm believer in Marxist theories, but he made a valuable contribution to the development of the ideas in his own right. Lenin’s main contribution to Marxism was an analysis of how it could be implemented in practice and how Marxist groups could establish achieve a revolution, specifically in Russia.

Lenin believed that a post-revolutionary state must be ruthless in order to achieve the aims of Marxism. He believed that policies enacted by a post-revolutionary government were merely a means to an end.

Question 25

marxism-leninism vanguard party

Answer 25

The Revolution would be led by the vanguard party who would be made up of a small group of intellectuals. They would prepare and stage a revolution and take control of the post-revolutionary state. The vanguard party was a shift away from Marx’s belief in the organic and spontaneous uprising of the working classes towards a belief that the workers [and others] needed to be guided by a smaller elite. Essentially, Marx had faith that the working classes would lead a revolution on their own; Lenin believed they needed to be led. This idea inevitable led to the centralisation of power. Decision would be made centrally within the party and power would be held by a small group. This was Lenin’s interpretation of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat. Lenin emphasised the need for a strong powerful dictatorship to prevent a ‘counter-revolution’. The post-revolutionary state (in the socialist phase above) would need to ‘suppress the oppressors’ of the previous regime – ‘class enemies’ such as the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie. He knew that Bolshevik rule would result in a Civil War and was correct to think this.

Question 26

weakest link. marxism-leninism

Answer 26

. Lenin believed that a revolution could only happen in a country that was just beginning to industrialise and become a capitalist economy. This contrasted with Marx’s view that only where the workers were a majority of the population was a revolution likely. The implication of Lenin’s ideas is that it made Russia the best hope for Marxist revolutionaries.

The weakest link theory proposed that a revolution would begin in a country beginning to industrialise, but yet to establish a powerful state to protect the interest of the bourgeoisie. That revolution would then spread to countries where capitalism was more strongly established.

Question 28

establishing a one party dictatorship

Answer 28

Russia was run by as a dictatorship by a one-party state. This was justified through Lenin’s belief in the vanguard party and other Marxist-Leninist principles. The creation and continuation of it are discussed below. January 1918 election , the SRs won around 40%, whilst the Bolsheviks achieved just 24% of the vote. Lenin did not believe the results were as historically significant as the October Revolution of 1917 which took him to power. This is because the Bolsheviks represented the interests of the workers, not yet a dominant class in Russia. The effects of the revolution had not yet been felt, and therefore people voted under the influence of a false-class consciousness. Therefore, Lenin knew what was in their interests and was, in his view, justified in the creation of the one-party state and the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly – ignoring its results. By 1921 all other parties were banned and the Communist Party was the only legal political party within Russia. After Lenin, every single leader maintained and upheld the supremacy of the one-party state as an all-powerful dictatorship

Question 28

how did marxism-leninism influence politics in communist russia

Answer 28

Ideology was the most significant factor influencing all of the Communist’s policies. As with the Tsars it would be misleading to view Lenin as acting out of pure self-interest and seeking power for its own sake. Lenin believed that only a Communist revolution would bring about real change for society and improve society for the better, in his view. And the best way of achieving this was to have a highly centralised party controlled by elite revolutionaries – after all the workers experienced false-class consciousness and did not recognise what was in their best interest.

Question 28

stalin as a one party dictatorship

Answer 28

Article 126 of the Stalin Constitution stated the CPSU would remain the ‘nucleus of all public and state institutions’.

Question 29

khrushchev as a one party dictatorship

Answer 29

instigated a series of reforms known as ‘de-Stalinisation’, yet did not reduce the power of the Party. Indeed, when attempts were made to challenge the Party (Hungarian uprising, or Dr Zhivago), they were repressed.

Question 30

use of repression, communists

Answer 30

All Communists used repression to maintain the dictatorship they created. Any form of dissent against the Communist regime was repressed

Question 31

economic policies, communists

Answer 31

As an anti-capitalist movement, the Communists naturally changed economic policies considerably. War Communism under Lenin ended the free market. The Five Year Plans and Collectivisation did this once again, favouring a state-controlled economic with a system of planning and target setting.

Question 32

social policies, communists

Answer 32

A key guiding principle of Soviet social policy was the notion of equality. Class divisions were something that Communists were horrified by, and believed to be a creation of the unequal capitalist system. Hence social policy sought to achieve equality, whether through the reallocation of wealth, housing or resources. Further, religion was repressed at times by all Tsars since it represented what Marx called ‘the opium of the masses’.

Question 33

ideology in the power study 1924-1928

Answer 33

debates erupted within the party over the future direction of the Soviet Union. During the period 1917-1923, communist revolutions occurred frequently throughout Europe in countries such as Germany, Hungary, Russia, Italy, appearing to suggest an international revolution was likely. Yet, by 1924 [the year Lenin died], those revolution, with the exception of Russia, had failed. The question being asked was how can Communism be achieved? Traditional Marxists [such as Leon Trotsky] argued that a revolution in Russia alone was doomed to fail – it was surrounded by Capitalist enemies who, as seen in the Civil War, would try to crush Communism if they had the chance. Trotsky argued that Communism could only be achieved if there was a policy of permanent revolution. This involved both the transformation of Russia through the removal of class distinctions, but, more importantly, the spread of the revolution internationally. Russia should focus its efforts on promoting revolution abroad, particularly in the Western European nations with the largest working class and strongest economies.

Question 34

‘socialism in one country’ stalin

Answer 34

This was the notion that Socialism could be developed within Russia alone, so long as the economic base of the country was transformed and Russia could defend itself militarily. Therefore, Russia should focus its energy inwards and build a socialist state in the USSR without help from the outside. Proponents argued this did not contradict the Marxist notion of an international proletariat or a world revolution since, Russia should become a worker’s paradise as an example to the world – at which point other countries would look at the example of Russia and follow its lead.

Question 35

what is marxism- leninism- stalinism

Answer 35

Motivated by an attempt to achieve Socialism in one country.

This philosophy of achieving ‘socialism in one country’ fed into two other distinct features of Stalinism:

Question 36

adaption in the relationship between the superstructure and the base

Answer 36

Marx traditionally believed in economic determinism, the notion that the economy shapes everything else about how a society is organised. Stalin sought to change the relationship between the superstructure and the base by emphasising that now a dictatorship of the proletariat has been achieved, the superstructure can use the power of the state to shape the economy.

This resulted in the Command Economy – a distinct feature of the Stalin era. To achieve Socialism in once country, the economic base needed to be transformed. This would be instigated by the state in a top-down manner through Five-Year Plans and Collectivisation [more on these later!]. Hence, whilst Lenin allowed some aspect of capitalism in the economy, Stalin’s totalitarian system completely controlled the economy.

Question 37

the centralisation of the state around one individual; stalin

Answer 37

. Whilst Lenin created a system which was about the dictatorship and power of the Party, Stalin created a system which was about the total control of one individual. This would ensure political stability which admittedly had been lost in the Power Struggle. To achieve this, Stalin adopted the following methods:

o Cult of Personality. Stalin took political centralisation to new heights by creating, using propaganda, a positive image of Stalin, thereby demanding total obedience.

o Aggressive repression. Those deemed not to accept these policies were branded as counter-revolutionaries or bourgeois and repressed. Lenin had used this too. Where they differ is that Lenin used repression against political enemies of the

Party and did not violently repress communists; whilst Stalin violently repressed Communist opposition to his authority.

Question 38

khrushchev and destalinisation

Answer 38

1956, three years after Stalin died, Khrushchev had secured enough authority within the party to be considered the leader decided to deliver a speech – now known as the Secret Speech – to the party. The speech was intended to be a secretive, but it was soon leaked and became public knowledge. The speech and its consequences represent the largest change in ideology when compared to the previous ruler that we see over this period.

Question 39

khrushchev and the 2 main criticisms arguing the lenin vision

Answer 39

Stalin created a cult of personality ‘alien to Leninism’
Stalin established systematic violence for his own benefit, not the benefit of Socialism

Question 40

was there more change or contionuity in ideology over the years 1855-1964

Answer 40

One the surface, one could argue there were more similarities between Tsarist Autocracy and Marxism-Leninist dictatorship. Consider the following similarities:

· Both justify rule by a small non-democratic elite. The Tsars do this through Pobedonostsev’s aristocracy of intellect; whilst the Communists do this through the concept of the vanguard party and one-party rule.

· Both use of repression to maintain control – and believe that it is essential to maintain the system – i.e. it is justified. Autocracy is justified in crushing rebellion because they believe other systems would not work in Russia. The Communists justify repression to challenge counter-revolutionaries.

· Both resist meaningful political change believing their system is inherently ‘right’. Consider Nicholas’ reaction to the revolution of 1905 (repression) and Stalin’s reaction to opposition (repression).

· One could argue that Stalin’s personalisation of power through the cult of personality was similar to the concept of autocracy under the Tsars.

Question 41

differences in ideology between communists and tsarists

Answer 41

They had a different analysis of society and different attitudes to change. The Tsarist ideology was one of changelessness and resistance to change. Pobedonostsev’s ideas and the Three Pillars were a conservative reaction to change occurring in Europe. The Tsars did not want reform, but preservation. On the other hand, the Communist ideology of Marxism-Leninism was an ideology of change. Their aim was to achieve a communist system and they undertook vast socio-economic policies in order to achieve this. Tsars believe in a rigid class hierarchy where lower social classes are deferential to the Tsar. The Communists, on the other hand, believe that there should be a push towards a classless system.

· The justification for their authority was different, even if they had similar systems. Hence, the Tsars believed their authority was ‘top down’, while the communists believed their authority was ‘bottom up’. In autocracy what was important was God’s will. For the communists, they claimed to represent the ‘inevitable’ scientific outcome of Marxist theories. They represented the working class.