Nature Of Government- Central Government

Question 1

nature of goverment

Answer 1

characteristics and impact of individual rulers and government in terms of reforms, central and local administration, methods of repression and enforcement, reactions to political change, and ideological principles of autocracy, dictatorship and totalitarianism; the nature and effectiveness of opposition before and after 1917; the extent of change and political development.

Question 2

committee of ministers, alexander II

Answer 2

system of ministerial government developed during the reign of Alexander I (1801-1825). This system worked as follows:

· Tsar appoints a minister of a department. The departments were War, Navy, Foreign Affairs, Justice, Internal Affairs, Finance, Commerce, and Education.

· Regular ministerial reports were given either verbally or in written form to the Tsar. The Tsar met one-to-one with each minister

· The Tsar was the only one who knew what was happening in each ministry – the separate ministers did not meet together in a separate cabinet. This ensured the Tsar was central to the administration.

· Sometimes the atomisation of ministries came at the cost of efficiency. Each ministry had their own aims – at times contradictory. For instance, the Ministry of Interior was responsible for the internal affairs and maintenance of order in the Empire. They regarded worker disturbances as a threat to internal stability in the 1890s and they sought to improve the socio-economic conditions of the workers in order to avoid strikes and other such distrubances. On the other hand, the Ministry of Finance was responsible for the industrialisation of the Empire – a tasked deemed crucial if Russia was to avoid becoming a second-rate power. The Ministry of Finance sought to industrialise as fast as possible and if this meant poor conditions, then so be it.

· Ministers were part of a bureaucratic elite of nobles. Large bureaucracies developed around the ministries and state-employed officials tasked with carrying out policy or gathering information. These came exclusively from the landowning classes.

Question 3

the senate- tsars

Answer 3

was the supreme court of the Russian Empire.

· Members were appointed by the Tsar.

· The Senate had the right of judicial review over all serious legal cases.

· Promoting Ukaz from the Tsar. Ukaz were decrees which had the full force of law and required less deliberation than laws.

Question 4

the council of ministers-tsars

Answer 4

was the body tasked with drafting the details of laws or policies the Tsar wanted to be introduced. Alexander II used this extensively when producing his reforms.

· Tsar appointed all members

· The Tsar acted as the chairman and sat in on meetings. The purpose of this was to ensure the Tsar maintained an autocratic grip over government and ensure that ministers did not form a ‘bloc’.

Question 5

The Personal Chancellery of his Imperial Majesty- tsars

Answer 5

was a body designed to give the monarch greater control of the bureaucracy. It consisted of three bodies:

· The First Section were essentially personal secretaries to the Tsar.

· The Second Section were legal advisers who wrote new laws.

· The Third Section was the secret police who handled wide-ranging duties, which included surveillance of society and rooting out of corruption in the state apparatus, censorship, investigation of political crimes and management of relations between landowner and peasant.

Question 6

tsar goverment structure

Answer 6

e Tsar operated with extensive personal authority. Every important official was appointed directly by the Tsar. There was a clear separation of power between the various organs to ensure there was no rival to the Tsar. There was no ‘Prime Minister’ or equivalent who could challenge the Tsar. Power depended upon your loyalty to the Tsar.

Naturally, the vast range of decisions governments had to make, and the growing bureaucracy, meant that practically, the Tsar naturally relied on a vast bureaucracy and important ministers to help him govern. While these bureaucrats had little real power aside from implementing the Tsar’s decision, they did become an elite of administrative bureaucrats.

Question 7

how did autocracy change under Nicholas II, problems faced

Answer 7

Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5. Russia expect quick and easy victory, Japanese surprise Russia with their military organisation and naval strength.

· Jan 1905 – Bloody Sunday. Father Gapon organises w/c demonstration calling for minor economic reform, brutally repressed by Tsarist soldiers. Tsarist response caused horror amongst population and caused further strikes.

· Rural discontent – stretching back to 1861, the peasants had been unhappy with their condition. 1905 sees peasants seizing land from nobles.

· National minorities revolt – e.g. the Poles in Warsaw, the Finns in Helsinki.

· Russia’s m/c express discontent – they’d been excluded from political life they believed they should have a role in.

Question 8

october manifesto, 1905

Answer 8

The October Manifesto was primarily an attempt to calm revolutionary activity by promising a series of reforms. The Manifesto itself did not introduce the following reforms, but promised they would be enacted in due course:

• Basic Civil Liberties – freedom of speech, press, association, conscience, assembly.
• The creation of a Duma [Parliament] with powers to enact laws
• Universal male suffrage
• Political parties legalised

Question 9

fundamental laws 1906

Answer 9

The Fundamental Laws were the practical changes brought about to Russia’s constitution following the promises in the October Manifesto. The Laws brought about the only real change to the Russian political system during the Tsarist period and constitute the nature of government between 1906-1917.

Question 10

did the October manifesto and fundamental laws really create change

Answer 10

On the surface, this appeared to represent a significant change. New aspects of the political system included genuine elections, legitimate opposition within a Parliamentary setting [the Duma], some sharing of legislative powers to the Duma. Significantly, for the first time, the Tsar had recognised another legal body with political power.

However, in reality, the Fundamental Laws represented a continuation of the autocracy. The Tsar retained ultimate control over the passing of laws through his royal assent, and the introduction of laws through the appointment of ministers. Furthermore, Article 87 of the Fundamental Laws stated that the Tsar had the power to rule by decree without the Duma’s approval, should the situation demand it. So, effectively, the Tsar could continue to rule without any collaboration with the new Duma.

Question 11

nicholus and the dumas 1906-1914

Answer 11

With the introduction of new Parliaments [Dumas] political parties could now compete for elections and four Dumas sat between 1906-1914. As a result a proliferation of political parties developed, each with their own diagnosis of the problems of Russia and the solutions.

Question 12

Did 1905-1917 represent change or continuity in the nature of Russian government?
Changes

Answer 12

The introduction of political parties created room for

formal opposition to the Tsars

• The introduction of the Duma and elections created a

degree of democracy, albeit a limited one

• The Fundamental Laws created a Duma with the

power to veto laws, the first time an institution aside

from the Tsar possessed such power.

Question 13

Did 1905-1917 represent change or continuity in the nature of Russian government? continuity’s

Answer 13

The Tsar had the power to appoint ministers
- The Tsar had the final say over laws
- The Tsar’s use of article 87, for instance in 1910, showed the Tsar could easily bypass the Duma should he choose to.

Question 14

how did central government operate during the Lenin’s period

Answer 14

bottom-up [i.e. from the workers]. The origin of Bolshevik government stemmed from organisations called ‘Soviets’, councils made of workers and left-wing political parties during the late Tsarist period. The nature of the Soviets pre and post revolution, however, were very different things. Prior to the October revolution, Soviets had been quite diverse institutions with many different parties within them. , Lenin developed the slogan ‘all power to the Soviets’. The cry was a meaningful one in that they were calling for the end of power-sharing ‘Dual Power’ with the Duma and the establishment of worker control. This cry was particularly popular because many believed if the Soviets had complete power they would push for an end of war – something popular amongst the soldiers and workers, but not popular in the Duma.

‘All power to the Soviet’ would have represented a significant change in the nature of Russian central government, introducing a more democratic form of government than ever seen in Russia before. It would have empowered the workers to make meaningful decisions.

Question 15

communists developing a one party dictatorship, October 1917 congress of soviets

Answer 15

the Bolsheviks announced to the Congress of Soviets that they had seized power from the Provisional Government. Moderate socialists, Mensheviks and SRs angrily stormed out of the Soviet, leaving Trotsky to famously state: “Go where you belong from now on – into the dustbin of history!”. This Left a majority of Bolsheviks in the Congress to legitimise their authority

Question 16

establishing a one party dictatorship
the congress of soviets established sovnarkom (council of public commissars)

Answer 16

effectively the new government. Sovnarkom acted as the government. Lenin resisted calls for a coalition because it would lead him to compromise, instead choosing to fill government with Bolsheviks. He became Chairman [Prime minister], Trotsky gained Foreign affairs, Stalin was Commissar of the Nationalities.

Question 17

establishing a one party dictatorship
Bolshevik party dominated all structures of the soviet.

Answer 17

The Communist Party of the Soviet Union [or CPSU, what the Bolsheviks became in 1918] was based on the principle of democratic centralism. Democratic Centralism was a Leninist idea, established in 1903 when the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks split. It originated as the model of the party in opposition to the Tsars/Provisional Government, but became the model of rule during the entire Soviet era. Democratic Centralism was the notion that democracy did play a role in the party when voting for key posts/positions. However, once a decision had been made by the leadership of the party, the ‘Centralism’ components entailed that a decision on policy was binding to all members and no one could question/dispute decisions. This was a way of ensuring the ‘political vanguard’ of professional revolutionaries held supreme power over party policy. In 1921, at a time when there was a nationwide crisis and the potential of a Bolshevik split, Lenin decreed a Ban on Factions stating that the internal factions within the Bolshevik Party could no longer operate. The intention of this policy was to ensure that party unity was maintained through the NEP era.

Question 18

soviet goverment; sovnarkom

Answer 18

– 20 members, each with a responsibility

over a specific aspect of government [e.g. Commissar

for Foreign Affairs], elected by central executive

committee, Lenin chairman [up to 1924], key decision- makers, ruled by decree, decided policy met daily

Question 19

communist party -politburo

Answer 19

5-9 members, elected by Central Committee, decision makers, met daily and became increasingly important from 1919 onwards.

Question 20

soviet government- central execitive committee

Answer 20

elected by Congress
administration role [not a decision-making committee It led the Congress when the Congress was not sitting. After 1924 it was split into Union Soviet (for all of the Republics), and Soviet of Nationalities (for National Minorities within the Republics)

Question 21

communist party- central committee

Answer 21

40 members, elected by Congress, ran party affairs As the Party Congress had hundreds of delegates, the Central Committee allowed faster decision making throughout the year.

Question 22

soviet government- all russian congress of soviets

Answer 22

1000-2000 members,
elected by Provincial Soviets, met once per year. Acted as the equivalent of a parliament and were the supreme law-making body. In reality, they confirmed decisions made by Sovnarkom above and acted as a ‘rubber stamp’

Question 23

communist party- party congress

Answer 23

elected by Provincial / City parties. Met annually – usually once per year Hundreds of delegates voted on all main party policies. Until 1921 there were many different sub-groups, but the Ban on Factions removed them

Question 24

soviet government- provincial and city soviets

Answer 24

elected by local soviets.
Responsible for regional or city administration – e.g.
Leningrad/Moscow. Mainly administrative, they carried out policies made above.

Question 25

communist party- city/ provisional parties

Answer 25

party secretaries at this level often had significant influence. For instance, Kamenev / Zinoviev derived support from their control of Moscow / Leningrad. Party secretaries appointed by Politburo

Question 26

soviet government- local and direct soviets

Answer 26

Elected local representatives. By 1920s members had to be CPSU members.

Question 27

communist party- town/ district

Answer 27

1 members elected from each cell

Question 28

soviet government- electorate

Answer 28

‘Toiling masses’ were given the vote. The
‘exploitative classes’ were banned from voting.
Workers votes were weighted and worth five times more than peasants.

Question 29

communist party- cell

Answer 29

Cell – individual workplaces. People joined for advantages, such as the opportunity to gain jobs

Question 30

the role of the CPSU in the soviet union

Answer 30

As the party came to dominate the Soviet structure by the 1920s, the Soviet system became increasingly bureaucratic, hierarchical and less democratic

Question 31

cpsu- the main role of the party was to vet reliable administrators

Answer 31

Gaining a post in the CPSU was a privilege, not a right, and that privilege could be withdrawn. Members had to prove their ideological convictions, adherence to the Ban on Factions + the principle of Democratic Centralism, and their sound character. Those not committed had their membership withdrawn. Indeed, in 1922 there was a purge of a group known as the ‘raddishes’ [for being red on the outside and white in the middle] who joined the party for merely personal gain. In 1921-22 a third of members were removed because of this.

Question 32

cpsu- to vet party members, in april 1922 the position of general sectary was created and given to stalin

Answer 32

The position was initially a purely administrative one (not a political one). The purpose of the role was to ensure the party was organised effectively and that discipline was ensured.

The role allowed Stalin to:

§ Keep files on members

§ Appoint bureaucrats

§ Demote bureaucrats over disciplinary issues

§ Remove party members if they broke party rules [see above]

This post allowed Stalin to promote his allies, creating a obedient bureaucracy

Question 33

cpsu- through the 1920’s and 30’s the partys role in the bureaucracy increased

Answer 33

The Nomenklatura system was established. This was a list of key jobs in the government and party of which only the Central Committee could appoint. This gave the party elites, most notably Stalin, the power the appoint loyalists and ensured that the CPSU adhered to his own

o By the 1930s, 10% of party members were apparatchiks [full-time paid party organisers], and a further 30% of members were administrators.

Question 34

trotsky, revolution betrayed book

Answer 34

In 1937 Trotsky, in exile, wrote a book called the Revolution Betrayed where he criticised the development of a “dictatorship of the bureaucracy” which now exploited the working class. He prophesised that in the future the w/c and the bureaucrats would come into conflict and another revolution would occur. Shortly after the publication he was murdered by a Soviet agent working under the orders of Stalin.

Question 35

how did central government operate during the Stalinist era

Answer 35

The constitution did not fundamentally change the structure of central government in the USSR, but built on the platform of the 1918 and 1922 constitution. The main innovation of the Stalin Constitution was the extension of powers to the Soviet Socialist Republics [SSRs]. The individual SSRs were given some autonomy over their own internal affairs. In particular they were given the right to control their own education system and, in theory, the right to withdraw from the Union of Soviet Social Republics, as setup in 1924. Article 13 stated ‘the USSR is a federal state, formed on the basis of voluntary union of…. Soviet Socialist Republic equal in rights’.

Furthermore, Stalin adapted the electoral system. The 1918 constitution had only given the ‘toiling masses’ [peasants and workers] the power to vote. By 1936, Stalin argues that the class system had been abolished and that, as a result, everybody should be able to vote.

The final change was a new legislative structure, providing the SSRs more of a say over laws that were passed in the Soviet Union.

Question 36

stalin maintaining a democratic centralism

Answer 36

ensuring that dissent from the party-line was never tolerated. Although in theory the SSRs now had some autonomy, in practice they could do very little with that autonomy. Straying from the Marxist-Leninist education system, for instance, was unacceptable. Furthermore, in 1951 the Georgian SSR attempted to formally leave the USSR, a right given by the constitution. However, Stalin prevented this by purge the Georgian CP and executing its leading members. Others who opposed Stalin’s rule were targeted in the Great Purge

Question 37

continuity with the tsars and communists, Authoritarianism / centralised power.

Answer 37

Both systems had unconstrained power and
authority residing in figures of authority.
Both were authoritarian regimes. E.g. both
Lenin [through Sovnarkom] and the Tsars
[e.g. article 87 of the Fundamental Laws]
could rule by decree

Question 38

continuity with the tsars and communists, Reforms had little real impact in changing
the system

Answer 38

all the Soviet constitutions
included the basic principle of democratic
centralism and one-party rule; all Tsarist
reforms adhered to Autocracy.

Question 38

continuity with the tsars and communists, illusion of democracy

Answer 38

[Tsars =Dumas, communists = democratic
centralism], but in reality, power was centralised

Question 39

continuity with the tsars and communists, Obedient bureaucracies

Answer 39

Both system required bureaucrats willing to comply with the orders of their superiors. Under the Tsars this can be seen with the Committee of Ministers; while under the Communists the system of the nomenklatura and the role of General Secretary.

Question 40

changes between tsars and communists. autocracy vs one party state

Answer 40

Soviet central government revolved around the power of the Communist party. It served as the ‘nucleus of government’. Tsarism was centralised to one individual through Autocracy

Question 41

changes between tsars and communists. Bottom-up vs top down

Answer 41

Soviet central government claimed authority through Soviets from the bottom-up, whilst the Tsars claimed authority from the top-down. The soviet system of central government included a greater aspect of democracy through democratic centralism

Question 42

changes between tsars and communists. Reactive Tsars vs proactive communists

Answer 42

Tsarist Regime was reactive in terms of central government reform: they only introduced changes when central government was under threat in 1905. The communist reforms tended to extend the principles of USSR to other regions. E.g. the RSFSR just focused on Russia, the Stalin constitution extended right to national minorities