Natural Law - Ethics

Question 1

Who was Aquinas predominantly influenced by

Answer 1

Aristotle and his ideas about telos.

He especially focused on the Prime Mover, the final cause of all things, and thought it was the Christian God

The telos of rational beings is the goodness of God, which for us involves glorifying God by following God’s moral law

Question 2

What two paths does free will allow us to take

Answer 2

We can either follow God’s natural law which results in eudaimonia for both individuals and society

Or

Disobey what is naturally good for us, which has the opposite effect

Question 3

The four tiers of Law

Answer 3

Eternal Law

Divine Law

Natural Law

Human Law

Question 4

Eternal Law

Answer 4

God’s plan, built into the nature of everything which exists, according to his omnibenevolence

We cannot understand this law, we only have access to lesser laws that derive from the eternal law

Question 5

Divine Law

Answer 5

God’s revelations to humans e.g the Bible

Question 6

Natural Law

Answer 6

The Moral Law God created in nature and is discoverable by human reason

Question 7

Human law

Answer 7

Specification and amplification of Natural Law

Human laws should be derived from natural and divine law; human law gains authority from this, ultimately deriving authority from God’s nature

Question 8

Synderesis

Answer 8

The habit or ability of reason to discover the foundations of God’s natural moral law

The good is what all things seek as their end; this means that human nature has an innate orientation to the good

Through synderesis we learn the primary precepts. Simply by having reason allows us to intuitively know these precepts and we are all born with the ability to know them

Question 9

Primary Preccepts

Answer 9

Worship God,

live in an orderly society,

defend the innocent,

reproduce,

educate,

protect and preserve human life

The articulation of the orientations in our nature towards the good; the natural inclinations of our God-designed human nature, put into the form of ethical principles by human reason

Question 10

Conscientia

Answer 10

The ability of reason to apply the primary precepts

The judgement acquired from this is called secondary precepts

E.g Euthanasia is not explicitly combatted by the primary precepts, but the application of our reason makes us realise it goes contrary to the precept of protecting and preserving human life and arguably disrupts society too - therefore we can conclude the secondary precept that euthanasia is wrong

Question 11

Exterior acts

Answer 11

A physical action itself is an exterior act because it occurs outside of our mind.

Question 12

Interior acts

Answer 12

Our intention; what we deliberately choose to do is the interior act because it occurs inside our mind

Question 13

Is a good exterior act necessarily glorifying God

Answer 13

No, if it is not done with the intention of fulfilling the God-given goal/telos of our nature

Giving money to charity is a good exterior act, but only morally good when combined with the right intention (interior act). If the intention was only to be thought of as a good person, then the action is not truly morally good

Question 14

A strength of Telos based ethics

Answer 14

Empirical basis

Aristotle observed that everything has a nature which inclines it towards a certain goal which he and Aquinas called its telos. It is a biological fact that certain behaviours cause an organism to flourish

Thus, telos seems an empirically valid concept

Question 15

Weakness of Telos based ethics

Answer 15

Bacon said only material and efficient causation were valid scientific concepts, not formal and final causation. Telos is unscientific

Physicist Sean Carroll concludes that purpose is not built into the ‘architecture ‘of the universe

The modern world can explain the world without telos through evolution etc

Question 16

Defence of telos

Answer 16

Polkinghorne notes that science can tell us how and what but not why

Thus, a prime mover or God could still exist to provide some kind of Telos

Question 17

Evaluation critiquing telos

Answer 17

Dawkins analogises ‘what is the colour of jealousy?’ - the assumption of this question is that jealousy has a colour

Similarly, just because we can ask why we and the universe exist, that doesn’t mean there actually is purpose for it

Dawkins puts the burden of proof upon those who claim purpose exists - there is no scientific basis for thinking anything other than material and efficient causation exist

Furthermore, scientists may one day actually explain the why but even if they don’t it doesn’t justify a non-scientific explanation of purpose such as telos

Question 18

Strength of Natural Law through universal agreement

Answer 18

The primary precepts are found in the morality of all societies e.g killing arbitrarily and rules about stealing are universal, as are valuing reproduction and education

Additionally, the golden rule of treating others as you wish to be treated is found globally in cultures which suggests moral views are influenced by a universal human moral nature

This is good evidence that we are all born with a moral orientation towards the good, which is the foundation of A’s theory

Question 19

Weakness of NL through universal agreement

Answer 19

If we are born with the ability to know the Primary Precepts, we should find more moral agreement than we do

This problem is exacerbated when we see it’s not random but falls heavily along cultural lines. This suggests social conditioning causes our moral views rather than a Natural Law. This has been argued by psychologists like Freud

Fletcher argues this shows there is not an innate God-given ability of reason to discover a natural law. He concludes that ethics may be based on faith, not reason (Fletcher’s positivism)

Question 20

Evaluation defending Aquinas from lack of universality of morality

Answer 20

He claims human nature merely contains an orientation towards the good, not a commitment to humans doing more actual good than evil, nor to incredibly evil acts or cultures occurring infrequently

He acknowledges there are many reasons we might fail to do good despite having an orientation towards it. This includes:
- OG sin
- Mistakes in Conscientia
- Lacking virtue
- Corrupt culture

So that there is a set of core moral views found cross-culturally shows his theory is correct

Question 21

Evaluation critiquing Aquinas from the lack of universal morality

Answer 21

Cross-cultural morality might result merely from the basic requirement of a society to function. If anyone kills anyone for no reason it might create an existential pressure which influences the moral thinkers of a society, yielding prescriptions such as the golden rule

Thus, cross cultural ethics has a practical basis, not God

Some cross-cultural similarities in moral codes might also have resulted from a biologically evolved moral sense rather than one designed by a God - not related to morality or telos at all

Question 22

Strength of Natural Law from the balance of good and evil

Answer 22

Its basis gives a balanced view of human nature containing both good and bad. It also adds an engagement with autonomy to Christian ethics, where sola scriptura Protestants are mere receptacles for Biblical commands; Aquinas argues God gave us reason so we may use it

Aquinas accepts that OG sin destroyed original righteousness (perfect rational self-control). However it did not destroy reason itself and its accompanying telos, inclining us towards good

He says only rational beings can sin and that even though OG sin made us sinners, we were not reduced to animals

Aquinas diverges from Augustine, claiming that concupiscence can sometimes be natural to humans

So, a comprehensive approach to Christian morality must include the use of reason to discover and act on the telos of our natures

Question 23

Weakness of Natural Law from Barth

Answer 23

Barth, who was heavily influenced by Augustine, claimed that after the Fall our ability to reason became corrupted by OG sin

His argument is thus that it’s dangerous to rely on human reason to know anything of God, including morality

Our finite minds cannot grasp God and so whatever humans discover through reason is not divine, so to think it is divine is idolatry

Idolatry can lead to worship of nations and even movements like Nazis

Only faith in God’s revelation in the Bible is valid, human reason cannot reach God or His morality

Question 24

Judgement defending Aquinas from Barth

Answer 24

Barth’s argument fails because it doesn’t address Aquinas’ point that our reason isn’t always corrupted and OG sin hasn’t destroyed our orientation towards the good

OG sin at most diminishes our inclination towards goodness by creating a habit of acting against it

Sometimes, with God’s grace, our reason can discover knowledge of God’s existence and Natural Moral Law.

So Natural is valid

Question 25

Judgement critiquing Aquinas from Barth

Answer 25

Barth remains right that our corruption by OG sin makes our reasoning about God’s existence and morality corrupted too

Even if there is a Natural Law, we are unable to discover it reliably with the bad in our nature meaning we cannot rely on the good - whatever a weak and misled conscience discovers is too unreliable

Humanity’s belief it has the ability to know anything of God is the same arrogance that led Adam and Eve to disobey God - this belief in our power of figuring out right and wrong led to the arrogant certainty of Nazis in their superiority

This arrogance of Natural Theology is evidence of a human inability to be humble enough to solely rely on faith

Question 26

Universal access to Natural Law

Answer 26

All humans are born with the ability to know and apply the Primary Precepts

Even those who do not follow Christianity can: ‘Gentiles, who do not have the law, do by nature what the law requires… God’s law is written in their hearts, for their own conscience and thoughts either accuse them or tell them they are doing right’ - Romans 2:14-15

So it is possible to follow NL, regardless of your faith and access to the Bible

Question 27

Outdatedness of Natural Law

Answer 27

Secularists argue Biblical morality is primitive and barbarous, emerging from ancient human minds

J.S. Mill calls the Old Testament ‘Barbarous and intended only for a barbarous people’

Freud similarly argued that religious morality reflected the ‘Ignorant childhood days of the human race’

Aquinas’ ethic is thus criticised for this reason as it was required to prevent societal collapse

For example:
- Once useful to restrict sexual behaviour to marriage because of how economically fatal single motherhood used to be
- Useful to have more children because most died

Clearly these socio-economic conditions have changed so primary precepts are no longer useful and society can afford to relax the rules without social order being threatened

Question 28

Evaluation defending Aquinas from outdatedness

Answer 28

Catholics argue it’s not outdated because it allows our society to flourish and counteracts the retrograde in Western ethics

For example:
- Marriages are fewer and less successful
- Higher rate of mental illness

People are no longer united by ethics but by consumerism and materialism

So, religious and natural law ethics aren’t outdated by are a vital societal anchor for morality, meaning and purpose

‘Excluding God, religion and virtue from public life leads ultimately to a truncated vision of man and of society and thus to a reductive vision of the person and his destiny’ - Pope Benedict XIV

Question 29

Evaluation critiquing Aquinas for outdatedness

Answer 29

NL is outdated because Aquinas’ theory was a reaction to his socio-economic context, which has changed drastically

He thought he discovered the primary precepts through reason, but a simpler explanation is that Aquinas intuited what was good for people in his socio-economic condition

The great strength of religion as a form of societal organisation is also its greatest weakness:

By telling people that its ethical precepts come from God creates a strong motivation to follow them.

Yet, because those precepts come from an eternal being, they become inflexible and painstakingly difficult to progress - this makes them increasingly outdated

Question 30

Doctrine of Double Effect

Answer 30

Permits actions which contradict one primary precept if the action is in an effort to primarily preserve another

E.g allowing condoms to prevent the spread of HIV

Permitting condoms under ‘preserve and protect life’

Contradicting ‘nurture and foster the young’

Question 31

Four conditions of the Doctrine of Double Effect

Answer 31

The intentionality condition - Good effect must be intended and the bad ‘besides the intention’ e.g killing another in self defence is okay so long as you’re objective was to save your own life

The proportionality condition - Good effect must be at least equivalent to the bad effect

The means-end condition - good and bad effect must both be brought about simultaneously and immediately, otherwise the bad is being used to bring about the good - not permissible

The nature of the act condition - the action must be either morally good, indifferent or neutral e.g killing an innocent can never be justified

Question 32

Strength of the Doctrine of Double Effect from the Bible

Answer 32

It helps to resolve seemingly disparate Biblical themes - Jesus’ commands weren’t merely about following certain rules, but also about having the right moral intention and virtue, e.g Sermon on the Mount

The DoDE provides important clarity to Christian ethics by showing the relation between the important moral elements of intention and following the moral law

Good intention is important and, when involved in an action that has a good effect, can justify permitting a bad side effect

Question 33

Weakness of the Doctrine of Double Effect from unbiblicalness

Answer 33

God’s commandments are presented as absolute and not dependent on someone’s intention

The distinction between intended effects of action and merely foreseen effects ‘beside’ the intention has no morally relevant significance

Intention isn’t irrelevant, e.g accidentally running over someone in the street who stepped out, however, if you can foresee a bad consequence, the fact it was a secondary effect doesn’t justify it

Question 34

Evaluation defending NL from unbiblicalness

Answer 34

It’s an unsuccessful criticism because NL is different to the Bible - the Bible is inflexible, but that is the Divine Law

The Natural Law is more flexible because it is in the form of very general precepts which require application and the telos of the Natural Law is glorifying God, which requires that it be our intention to glorify God - thus showing how intentions are relevant

Question 35

Evaluation criticising Natural Law from lack of Bible

Answer 35

This weakness is successful because it shows that NL is trying to add flexibility to inflexible Biblical Law

The Natural and Divine Law don’t cover separate areas but cross over and so conflict on this point of inflexibility

Christians must choose the Bible over Natural Law