N - Basic Chemistry Flashcards
Chapter 2
1
Q
Anything that occupies space and has mass
A
Matter
2
Q
Matter that has a definite shape and volume
A
Solid
3
Q
Matter that has a definite volume; shape of the container
A
Liquid
4
Q
Matter that has neither a definite shape nor volume
A
Gaseous
5
Q
Matter
Changes do not alter the basic nature of a substance. Examples include changes in the state of matter like ice.
A
Physically
6
Q
Matter
Changes alter the chemical composition of a substance
A
Chemically
7
Q
▪ The ability to do work.
▪ It has no mass and does not take up space.
A
Energy
8
Q
Energy doing work
A
Kinetic Energy
9
Q
Energy is inactive of stored
A
Potential Energy
10
Q
Energy is stored in chemical bonds of substances
A
Chemical Energy
11
Q
Energy results from the movement of charged particles
A
Electrical Energy
12
Q
Energy directly involved in moving matter
A
Mechanical Energy
13
Q
The energy that travels in waves; Energy of electromagnetic spectrum
A
Radiant Energy
14
Q
▪ Energy from conversions.
▪ Traps the chemical energy of foods in their bonds.
A
ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate
15
Q
The fundamental units of matter
A
Elements
16
Q
96% of the body is made from these four elements.
A
Oxygen
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
17
Q
Most common element and comprises 65% of the body’s mass
A
Oxygen
18
Q
= Major component of both organic and inorganic molecules
= Essential to the oxidation of glucose and other food fuels during cellular energy (ATP) is produced
A
Oxygen (O)
19
Q
Primary element in all organic molecules, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
A
Carbon (C)
20
Q
= Component of most organic molecules
= As an ion (charged atom), it influences the pH of body fluids
A
Hydrogen (H)
21
Q
Component of proteins and nucleic acids (genetic material)
A
Nitrogen (N)
22
Q
= Found as salt in bones and teeth.
= In ionic form, required for muscle contraction, neural transmission, and blood clotting.
A
Calcium (Ca)
23
Q
= Present as salt, in combination with calcium in bones and teeth.
= Present in nucleic acids and many proteins
= Forms part of the high energy compound ATP
A
Phosphorus (P)
24
Q
= The major intracellular cation.
= Necessary for conduction of nerve impulses and muscle contraction
A
Potassium (K)
25
Component in proteins, particularly in contractile proteins of muscle.
Sulfur (S)
26
= The major extracellular cation.
= Important for water balance
= Conduction of nerve impulses and muscle contraction
Sodium (Na)
27
The most abundant anion.
Chlorine (Cl)
28
= Present in bone
| = Important cofactor for enzyme activity in number of metabolic reactions
Magnesium (Mg)
29
Needed to make functional thyroid hormones.
Iodine (I)
30
Component of functional hemoglobin molecule (transports oxygen within RBC) and some enzyme.
Iron (Fe)
31
▪ Building blocks of elements
▪ All are electrically neutral
- #P = #N
- Positive and Negative cancel each other out
Atoms
32
Positively charged atom found in the nucleus
Protons
33
Uncharged or neutral atom found in the nucleus
Neutrons
34
Negatively charged atom that orbits around the nucleus
Electrons
35
Atoms that have lost or gained electrons
Ions
36
▪ Portrays the atom as a miniature solar system
▪ Protons and neutrons are in the atomic nucleus
▪ Electrons are in orbitals around the nucleus
Planetary Model
37
Electrons are depicted by an electron cloud, a haze of
| negative charge, outside the nucleus
Orbital Model
38
It determines an atom's chemical behavior and bonding properties.
Electron
39
To identify an element, we need to know the
▪ Atomic number
▪ Atomic mass number
▪ Atomic weight
40
Atomic number is
Equal to the number of protons
41
Atomic mass number is
Sum of protons and neutrons
42
Atomic weight is approximately
Equal to mass number of element's abundant isotopes
43
```
▪ Atoms that have the
= same number of protons and electrons
= vary in the number of neutrons
= same atomic number
= different atomic masses
```
Isotopes
44
▪ Heavy isotope of certain atoms
▪ Tends to be unstable
▪ Decomposes to more stable isotope
Radioisotope
45
▪ Process of spontaneous atomic
decay
▪ Used to tag and trace biological molecules through the body
Radioactivity
46
Two or more atoms of the same elements combined chemically
Molecule
47
Two or more atoms of different elements combined chemically
Compound
48
It occurs when atoms combine with or dissociate from other atoms
Chemical reactions
49
It is the energy relationships
| involving interactions among the electrons of reacting atoms
Chemical bonds
50
Electrons closest to the nucleus are
most strongly
| attracted to its positive charge
51
Distant electrons further from the nucleus are
| likely to
interact with other atoms
52
It involves interactions only between electrons in the outermost (valence) shell
Bonding
53
Atoms with full valence shells
do not form bonds
54
Atoms are considered stable and chemically inactive (inert) when their outermost (valence) shell has
8 Electrons
Rule of Eights
55
▪ Form when electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another
▪ Allow atoms to achieve stability through the transfer of electrons
Ionic bonds
56
▪ Result from the loss or gain of electrons
| ▪ Tend to stay close together because opposite charges attract
Ions
57
Ions that have negative charge due to gain of electron(s)
Anions
58
Ions that have positive charge due to loss of electron(s)
Cations
59
▪ Atoms become stable through shared electrons
| ▪ Electrons are shared in pairs
Covalent bonds
60
Bonds that share one pair of electrons
Single covalent bonds
61
Bonds that share two pairs of electrons
Double covalent bonds
62
▪ Electrons are shared equally between the atoms of the molecule
▪ Electrically neutral as a molecule
▪ Example: carbon dioxide
Nonpolar covalent bonds
63
▪ Electrons are not shared equally between the atoms of the molecule
▪ Molecule has a positive and negative side or pole
▪ Example: water
Polar covalent bonds
64
▪ Extremely weak chemical bonds
▪ Formed when a hydrogen atom is attracted to the
negative portion, such as an oxygen or nitrogen atom,
of a polar molecule
▪ Responsible for the surface tension of water
▪ Important for forming intramolecular bonds, as in
protein structure
Hydrogen bonds
65
(A + B → AB)
▪ Atoms or molecules combine to form a larger, more complex molecule
▪ Energy is absorbed for bond formation
▪ Underlies all anabolic (building) activities in the body
Synthesis reaction
66
(AB → A + B)
▪ Molecule is broken down into smaller molecules
▪ Chemical energy is released
▪ Underlies all catabolic (destructive) activities in the
body
Decomposition reaction
67
AB + C → AC + B
and
AB + CD → AD + CB
▪ Involves simultaneous synthesis and decomposition
reactions as bonds are both made and broken
▪ Switch is made between molecule parts, and different
molecules are made
Exchange reaction
68
It is indicated by a double arrow
Reversibility
69
Factors Increasing Rate of Chemical Reactions
▪ Increase in temperature
▪ Increase concentration of reacting particles
▪ Decrease in particle size
▪ Presence of catalyst
70
Compound
▪ Lack carbon
▪ Tend to be small, simple molecules
▪ Include water, salts, and many (not all) acids and bases
Inorganic Compounds
71
Compound
▪ Contain carbon
▪ All are large, covalent molecules
▪ Include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
Organic compounds
72
Inorganic Compound
▪ Most abundant inorganic compound in the body
▪ Accounts for two-thirds of the body’s weight
Water
73
Vital properties of Water
▪ High heat capacity
▪ Polarity/solvent properties
▪ Chemical reactivity
▪ Cushioning
74
Vital properties of Water
▪ Water absorbs and releases a large amount of heat before it changes temperature
▪ Prevents sudden changes in body temperature
High heat capacity
75
Vital properties of Water
Water is often called the “universal solvent”
Polarity/solvent properties
76
Lliquids or gases that dissolve smaller amounts of solutes
Solvents
77
Solids, liquids, or gases that are dissolved or suspended by solvents
Solutes
78
forms when solutes are very tiny
Solution
79
forms when solutes of intermediate size form a
| translucent mixture
Colloid
80
Reactions that require water are known as
Hydrolysis reactions
81
Vital properties of Water
Water is an important reactant in some chemical reactions
Chemical reactivity
82
Vital properties of Water
Water serves a protective function
Cushioning
83
The fluid that protects the brain from physical trauma
Cerebrospinal fluid
84
The fluid that protects a
| developing fetus
Amniotic fluid
85
Inorganic Compounds include
| 4
Water
Salts
Acids
Bases
86
Organic Compounds include
| 9
```
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Triglycerides or Neutral Fats
Trans Fat
Omega-3 Fatty Acids
Phospholipids
Steroids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
```
87
Inorganic Compound
▪ Ionic compound
▪ Contain cations other than H+ and anions other than OH–
▪ Easily dissociate (break apart) into ions in the presence of water
▪ Vital to many body functions
▪ All are electrolytes
Salts
88
Elements essential for
| nerve impulses
▪ Sodium (if only one element is asked)
| ▪ Potassium
89
Ions that conduct electrical currents
Electrolytes
90
Inorganic Compound
▪ Release hydrogen ions (H+)
▪ Proton (H+) donors
▪ Example: HCl → H+ + Cl–
Acids
91
Acids that ionize completely and liberate all their protons
Strong acids
92
Acids that ionize incompletely
Weak acids
93
Inorganic Compound
▪ Release hydroxyl ions (OH–)
▪ Proton (H+) acceptors
▪ Example: NaOH → Na+ + OH–
Bases
94
▪ Type of exchange reaction in which acids and bases
react to form water and a salt
▪ Example: NaOH + HCl → H2O + NaCl
Neutralization reaction
95
It measures the relative concentration of hydrogen (and hydroxide) ions in body fluids
pH
96
pH scale is based on the number of
protons
97
▪ The number of hydrogen ions exactly equals the number of hydroxyl ions
▪ equal to 7 pH
▪ Hydrogen = Hydroxyl
Neutral
98
▪ Solutions that have a pH below 7
| ▪ More hydrogen (H+) than OH–
Acidic solution
99
▪ Solutions that have a pH above 7
| ▪ Fewer hydrogen (H+) than OH–
Basic solutions
100
Chemicals that can regulate pH change
Buffers
101
▪ Chainlike molecules made of many similar or repeating units (monomers)
▪ Include carbohydrates and proteins
Polymer
102
Monomers are joined to
| form polymers through the removal of water molecules
Dehydration synthesis
103
Dehydration Synthesis
removed from one monomer
Hydrogen ion
104
Dehydration Synthesis
removed from the monomer it is to be joined with
Hydroxyl group
105
Water is removed at the site where monomers join
Dehydration
106
▪ Polymers are broken down into monomers through the addition of water molecules
▪ As a water molecule is added to each bond, the bond is broken, and the monomers are released
Hydrolysis
107
Organic Compounds
▪ Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
▪ Include sugars and starches
▪ Classified according to size and solubility in water
Carbohydrates
108
Carbohydrates
▪ Simple sugars and the structural units of the carbohydrate group
▪ Single-chain or single-ring structures
▪ Contain three to seven carbon atoms
▪ Examples: glucose (blood sugar), fructose, galactose,
ribose, deoxyribose
Monosaccharides
109
Carbohydrates
▪ Two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis
▪ Too large to pass through cell membranes
▪ Examples include sucrose, lactose, and maltose
Disaccharides
110
Carbohydrates
▪ Long-branching chains of linked simple sugars
▪ Large, insoluble molecules
▪ Function as storage products
▪ Examples include starch and glycogen
Polysaccharides
111
Organic Compounds
▪ Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen)
▪ Most abundant are the triglycerides, phospholipids,
and steroids
▪ Insoluble in water, but soluble in other lipids
Lipids
112
Lipid Type
= Found in fat deposits
= Protect and insulate the body organ
= Major source of stored energy in the body
Triglycerides (neutral fats)
113
Lipid Type
= Found in cell membranes
= Participate in the transport of lipids in plasma
= Abundant in the brain and nervous tissue where they help to form insulating white matter
Phospholipids
114
Lipid Type
(Steroids)
The basis of all body steroids
Cholesterol
115
Lipid Type
(Steroids)
= Breakdown product of cholesterol
= Released by the liver to the digestive tract where they aid in fat digestion and absorption
Bile salts
116
Lipid Type
(Steroids)
= Fat-soluble vitamin produced in the skin on exposure to UV radiation
= Necessary for normal bone growth and function
Vitamin D
117
Lipid Type
(Steroids)
= Necessary for normal reproductive function
= Deficits results in sterility
Sex hormones
118
Female hormones
Estrogen and Progesterone
119
Male hormone
Testosterone
120
Lipid Type
(Steroids)
Corticosteroids (Adrenal cortical hormones)
= A glucocorticoid
= Is a long-term antistress hormone that is necessary for life
Cortisol
121
Lipid Type
(Steroids)
Corticosteroids (Adrenal cortical hormones)
= Helps regulate salt and water balance in body fluids by targeting the kidneys
Aldosterone
122
Lipid Type
= Fat-soluble vitamin
= Found in orange-pigmented vegetables (carrot) and fruits (tomatoes)
= Part of photoreceptor pigment involved in vision
Vitamin A
123
Lipid Type
= Fat-soluble vitamin
= Taken in via plant products such as wheat germ and green leafy vegetables
= Promote wound healing and contribute fertility, but not proven in humans
= Antioxidant
= Help neutralize free radicals
Vitamin E
124
Highly reactive particles believed to be involved in triggering some types of cancers
Free radicals
125
Lipid Type
= Fat-soluble vitamin
= Made available largely by the action of intestinal bacteria
= Prevalent in a wide variety of foods
= Necessary for proper clotting of blood
Vitamin K
126
Lipid Type
= Derivatives of fatty acids found in cell membranes
= Various functions depending on the specific class including:
- Stimulation of uterine contractions (including labor and miscarriages)
- Regulation of blood pressure
- Control of motility of the gastrointestinal tract
= Involved in inflammation
Prostaglandins
127
Lipid Type
= Lipoid and protein-based substances that transport fatty acids and cholesterol in the bloodstream
= Major varieties are high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and low-density lipoproteins (LDL)
Lipoproteins
128
Lipid Type
= Component of cell membranes
= Lipids associated with carbohydrate molecules that determine blood type
= Play a role in cell recognition or in recognition of foreign substances by immune cells
Glycolipids
129
Organic Compounds
▪ Found in fat deposits
▪ Source of stored energy
▪ Composed of two types of building blocks - fatty acids and one glycerol molecule
Triglycerides or Neutral fats
130
Triglycerides
Two Types of Fatty Acids
Saturated fatty acids
| Unsaturated fatty acids
131
Fatty Acid Chains of Triglycerides
▪ Contain only single covalent bonds
▪ Chains are straight
▪ Exist as solids at room temperature since molecules pack closely together
▪ Butter
Saturated fats
132
Fatty Acid Chains of Triglycerides
▪ Contain one or more double covalent bonds, causing chains to kink
▪ Exist as liquid oils at room temperature
▪ “Heart healthy”
▪ Olive oil
Unsaturated fats
133
Organic Compounds
▪ Oils that have been solidified by the addition of
hydrogen atoms at double bond sites
▪ Increase risk of heart disease
Trans fats
134
Organic Compounds
▪ Found in cold-water fish and plant sources, including flax, pumpkin, and chia seeds; walnuts and soy foods
▪ Appear to decrease the risk of heart disease
Omega-3 fatty acids
135
Organic Compounds
▪ Contain two fatty acids chains rather than three; they are hydrophobic (“water-fearing”)
▪ Phosphorus-containing polar “head” carries an
electrical charge and is hydrophilic (“water-loving”)
▪ Charged “head” region interacts with water and ions while the fatty acid chains (“tails”) do not
▪ Form cell membranes
Phospholipids
136
Organic Compounds
▪ Formed of four interlocking rings
▪ Include cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, and some
hormones
▪ Some cholesterol is ingested from animal products; the liver also makes cholesterol
Steroids
137
It is the basis for all steroids made in the body
Cholesterol
138
Organic Compounds
▪ Account for over half of the body’s organic matter
▪ Provide construction materials for body tissues
▪ Play a vital role in cell function
▪ Act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies
▪ Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and
sometimes sulfur
▪ Built from building blocks called amino acids
Proteins
139
▪ Contain an amine group (NH2)
▪ Contain an acid group (COOH)
▪ Vary only by R-groups
Amino acid structure
140
Protein structure
Contain fewer than 50 amino acids
Polypeptides
141
Protein structure
▪ Contain more than 50 amino acids
▪ Large, complex ____ contain 50 to thousands of
amino acids
▪ Sequence of amino acids produces a variety of ____
Proteins
142
Structural Levels of Proteins
▪ Strand of amino acid “beads”
▪ The unique sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain.
Primary structure
143
Structural Levels of Proteins
▪ Chains of amino acids twist or bend.
▪ It is reinforced by hydrogen bonds, represented by dashed lines in this figure.
Secondary structure
144
Secondary Structure of Protein
resembles a metal spring
Alpha-helix
145
Secondary Structure of Protein
resembles pleats of a skirt or sheet of paper folded into a fan
Beta-pleated sheet
146
Structural Levels of Proteins
▪ Compact, ball-like (globular) structure
▪ The overall three-dimensional shape of the polypeptide or protein
▪ It is reinforced by chemical bonds between the R-groups of amino acids in different regions of the protein chain.
Tertiary structure
147
Structural Levels of Proteins
Result of a combination of two or more polypeptide chains
Quaternary structure
148
Kind of Protein
▪ Appear in body structures
▪ Exhibit secondary, tertiary, or even quaternary structure
▪ Bind structures together and exist in body tissues
▪ Stable proteins
▪ Examples include collagen and keratin
Fibrous (structural) Proteins
149
Kind of Protein
▪ Function as antibodies, hormones, or enzymes
▪ Exhibit at least tertiary structure
▪ Hydrogen bonds are critical to the maintenance of the structure
▪ Can be denatured and no longer perform physiological roles
▪ Active sites “fit” and interact chemically with other molecules
Globular (functional) Proteins
150
Functional Class of Proteins
▪ Highly specialized proteins that recognize, bind with and inactivate bacteria, toxins, and some viruses
▪ Function in the immune response, which helps protect the body from "invading" foreign substances
Antibodies (immunoglobulins)
151
Functional Class of Proteins
Help regulate growth and development
Hormones
152
Hormone
An anabolic hormone necessary for optimal growth
Growth Hormone
153
Hormone
Helps regulate blood sugar
Insulin
154
Hormone
Guides the growth of neurons in the development of the nervous system
Nerve Growth Factor
155
Functional Class of Proteins
▪ Hemoglobin transports oxygen in the blood
▪ Other transport proteins in the blood carry iron, cholesterol, or other substances
Transport Proteins
156
Functional Class of Proteins
▪ Essential to virtually every biochemical reaction in the body
▪ Increase the rates of chemical reactions by at least a millionfold
▪ In their absence (destruction), biochemical reactions cease
Enzymes (catalysts)
157
Organic Compounds
▪ Act as biological catalysts
▪ Increase the rate of chemical reactions
▪ Bind to substrates at an active site to catalyze reactions
▪ Can be recognized by their –ase suffix
= Hydrolase
= Oxidase
Enzymes
158
Organic Compounds
▪ Form genes
▪ Composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and
phosphorus atoms
▪ Largest biological molecules in the body
Nucleic Acids
159
2 Kinds of Nucleic Acids
DNA and RNA
160
Nucleic acids are built from building blocks called
Nucleotides
161
Nucleotides contain three parts called
▪ Nitrogenous base
▪ Pentose (five-carbon) sugar
▪ Phosphate group
162
▪ The genetic material found within the cell’s nucleus
▪ Provides instructions for every protein in the body
▪ Organized by complementary bases to form a double-stranded helix
▪ Contains the sugar deoxyribose and the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine
▪ Replicates before cell division
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
163
▪ Carries out DNA’s instructions for protein synthesis
▪ Created from a template of DNA
▪ Organized by complementary bases to form a single-stranded helix
▪ Contains the sugar ribose and the bases adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
164
Three varieties of RNA
▪ messenger RNA
▪ transfer RNA
▪ ribosomal RNA
165
▪ Composed of a nucleotide built from ribose sugar, adenine base, and three phosphate groups
▪ Chemical energy used by all cells
▪ Energy is released by breaking high-energy phosphate bond
▪ It is replenished by oxidation of food fuels
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
166
It accumulates as ATP is used for energy
Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)
167
Examples of how ATP drives cellular work
ATP provides the energy needed to drive energy-absorbing chemical reactions.
Chemical Work
168
Examples of how ATP drives cellular work
ATP drives the transport of certain solutes (amino acids, for example) across cell membranes.
Transport Work
169
Examples of how ATP drives cellular work
ATP activates contractile proteins in muscle cells so that the cells can shorten and perform mechanical work.
Mechanical Work
