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Multicellular organism Flashcards

1
Q

What is the first step of mitosis

A

In the original parent cell, the chromosomes replicate and double Forming 2 identical chromatids joined in the centre by a centromere

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1
Q

What is the second step of mitosis

A

The nuclear membrane breaks down and the chromosomes shorten and thicken, becoming visible under a microscope

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2
Q

What is the third step of mitosis

A

The chromatids line up along the equator of the cell

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3
Q

What is the fourth step of mitosis

A

Spindle fibres attach to the chromatids

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4
Q

What is the fifth step of mitosis

A

Spindle fibres shorten pulling the chromatids apart to opposite poles of the cell

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5
Q

What is the sixth step of mitosis

A

The cytoplasm divides and a nuclear membrane forms

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6
Q

What is the last step of mitosis

A

2 diploid cells produced, containing the same genetic information as the original parent cell

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7
Q

What is a chromatid

A

An exact replica of a chromosome joined together with the chromosome it’s replicating

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8
Q

What is the equator of the cell

A

The region in the middle of the cell where the chromatid pairs line up before they are separated to the poles

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9
Q

What are spindle fibres

A

The spindle fibres are strand of protein that the cell uses to separate the chromatid pairs from the equator to the poles

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10
Q

What is a diploid cell

A

They have two matching sets of chromosomes high are replicated during mitosis

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11
Q

What does mitosis do

A

Provides new cells for growth and repair of damaged cells and maintains the diploid chromosome complement

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12
Q

What are stem cells

A

Unspecialised cells in animals that can divide in order to self-renew

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13
Q

What do stem cells have the potential to do

A

become different types of cells

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14
Q

how are stem cells obtained

A

from embryo at a very early stage

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15
Q

When can tissue stem cells be found in the body

A

Throughout life

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16
Q

What does the specialisation of cells lead to

A

The formation of a variety of cells, tissues and organs

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17
Q

What are multicellular organism made up of

A

Tissues and organs

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18
Q

Do organisms only perform on function

A

No

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19
Q

What are cells in organs specialised for

A

Their function

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20
Q

What are groups of organisms that work together called

A

Systems

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21
Q

What is the hierarchy

A

Cells-tissues-organs-systems

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22
Q

What can a response to a stimulus be

A

A rapid action or a slower response from a gland

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23
Q

What does the nervous system consist of

A

The central nervous system and other nerves

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24
Q

What does the central nervous system consist of

A

The brain and spinal chord

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25
Q

What is the cerebrum

A

The large folded area of the brain and is responsible for conscious thoughts, reasoning, memory and emotions

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26
Q

What is cerebellum

A

Found at the rear of the brain below the cerebrum an controls balance and coordination movement

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27
Q

What is the medulla

A

Found at the top of the spinal chord and contains groups of neurons that transit electrical impulses to the hearts and lungs to control the heart rate and breathing rate

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28
Q

What do electrical impulses do

A

Carry messages along neurons

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29
Q

What do chemicals Dow it’s these messages

A

Transfer the, between neurons at synapses

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30
Q

What are the three types of neurons

A

Sensory, inter and motor

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31
Q

What do receptors

A

Detect sensory input/stimuli

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32
Q

What do sensory neurons do

A

Pass the information to the CNS

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33
Q

What do inter neurons do

A

Operate within the CNS, which
processes information from the senses that require a response

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34
Q

What do motor neurons do

A

Enable a response to occur at an effector (muscle or gland)

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35
Q

What is the function of the reflex arc

A

To control reflex reactions in humans

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36
Q

What is the purpose of reflexes

A

To protect the body from harm

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37
Q

What can a response to a stimulus be

A

A rapid action from a muscle or as lower response from a gland

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38
Q

What can endocrine glands release

A

Hormones into the bloodstream

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39
Q

What are hormones

A

Chemical messengers

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40
Q

What does a target tissue have

A

Cells with complementary receptor proteins for specific hormones, so only that tissue will be affected by these hormones

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41
Q

What are the roles of insulin and glucagon in the blood glucose regulation

A

They are released by the pancreas in order to control blood glucose concentration

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42
Q

What is glycogen

A

A storage carbohydrate found in the liver and muscle of animals

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43
Q

What are the only cells that are haploid

A

Gametes

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44
Q

What are almost all cells in terms of amount of chromosomes

A

Diploid

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45
Q

What are the two types of gametes

A

Egg cells and sperm cells(pollen grains in plants

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46
Q

What organ produces the egg cell

A

Ovaries

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47
Q

What organ produces the sperm cell

A

Animals: testes
Plants: anthers

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48
Q

Where is the female gamete organ found

A

Ovule

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49
Q

What is fertilisation

A

The fusion of the nuclei of the two haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote, which divides to form an embryo

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50
Q

What contributes to variation in a species

A

The combining of two parent genes

51
Q

What is discrete variation

A

variation that tends to have phenotypes that do unto separate categories

52
Q

What is continuous variation

A

variation that shows a wide range of values with each value falling anywhere within the range

53
Q

What is a gene

A

A location on a chromosome where a section of DNA contains the codes for a particular protein

54
Q

What is an allele

A

different forms of genes

55
Q

What is a phenotype

A

the organisms physical appearance

56
Q

What is a genotype

A

a statement of the alleles it has for a characteristic

57
Q

What is a dominant allele

A

A dominant allele always shows in the phenotype, even if the individual only has one copy of the allele

58
Q

What is a recessive allele

A

A recessive allele only shows if the individual has two copies of the recessive allele

59
Q

What does homozygous mean

A

Individuals who are homozygous for a certain ry two copies of the same allele

60
Q

What does heterozygous mean

A

Individuals who are heterozygous for a certain gene carry two different alleles

61
Q

What is the letter P used to indicate

A

The original parents in the cross

62
Q

What is F1 used to indicate

A

The first generation of offspring of the parental types

63
Q

What is F2 used to indicate

A

The second filial generation which is comprised of offspring(s) resulting from a cross of the members of F1 generation

64
Q

What is the recessive allele represented by in a monohybrid cross

A

A lowercase letter

65
Q

What is the dominant allele represented by in a monohybrid cross

A

A uppercase letter

66
Q

What are the reason why the predicted ratios of the offspring phenotypes are not always achieved

A

Fertilisation is a random process, the sample was not big enough

67
Q

What are the plant organs

A

Roots stems and leaves

68
Q

What is the upper epidermis

A

The top layer of the leaf which is thin and transparent to allow light to reach the palisade cells in the layer below

69
Q

What is the palisade mesophyll

A

Main site of photosynthesis column shaped, tightly packed and have many chloroplasts

70
Q

What is the spongy mesophyll

A

loosely arranged in an irregular shape with air spaces inbetween for gas exchange

71
Q

What are veins

A

Composed of xylem vessels and phloem. The xylem brings water to the leaf cells and the phloem transports sugar from photosynthesis

72
Q

What is the lower epidermis

A

A thin layer that aids the regulation of gas exchange containing stomata and guard cells

73
Q

What is the stomata

A

Openings through which the exchange of ga stakes place which are surrounded by two guard cells

74
Q

What parts of the plant are involved in water transport

A

Root hairs, xylem vessels, spongy mesophyll, guard cells and stomata

75
Q

Where does water enter through

A

The plant root hairs

76
Q

Where is the water transported through

A

Dead xylem vessels

77
Q

What is the structure of a xylem vessel

A

Consisted of dead cells with a thick cell wall strengthened by ring of lignin

78
Q

Why are xylem vessels lignified

A

To withstand pressure changes as water moves through the plants

79
Q

What is the structure of a phloem tissue

A

Composed of two main cell types serve tube cells and companion cells

80
Q

What is transportation

A

Teh process of water moving through a plant and its evaporation through teh stomata

81
Q

How does water move from the soil to the air

A

Through osmosis to the root hairs, through osmosis from the root hairs to the xylem in the root, through osmosis from the xylem to the spongy mesophyll in the leaf, from the spongy mesophyll to the moist air space inside the leaf, water the moves through diffusion from the air space in the leaf through the stomata into the air

82
Q

Describe the process of transpiration

A

Water on the surface of spongy and palisade cells evaporate into air space and diffuses out of the leaf. More water is drawn out of the xylem cells to replace the water that is lost.

83
Q

What are the factors that can speed up the rate of transpiration

A

Light, temperature, wind speed, humidity, leaf surface area

84
Q

How does light affect transpiration

A

In bright light transpiration increases

85
Q

Explain why light affects transpiration in this way

A

The stomata open wider to let in more CO2 for photosynthesis

86
Q

How does temperature affect transpiration

A

transpiration is faster in higher temperatures

87
Q

Explain why temperature affects transpiration in this way

A

Evaporation and diffusion are faster at higher temperatures

88
Q

How does wind speed affect transpiration

A

Faster in windy conditions

89
Q

Explain why wind speed affects transpiration this way

A

Water vapour is quickly removed speeding up diffusion

90
Q

How does humidity affect transpiration

A

Slower in his mid conditions

91
Q

Explain why humdidity affects transpiration in this way

A

It slows down if the leaf is already mois

92
Q

How does leaf surface area affect transpiration

A

More leaf Leads to faster transpiration

93
Q

Explain why leaf surface area affects transpiration in this way

A

larger leaf has mores stomata So more water will be evaporating

94
Q

What does blood contain in mammals

A

Plasma, red blood cells and white blood cells

95
Q

What does blood transport

A

nutrients, oxygen and carbon dioxide

96
Q

How are red blood cells specialised

A

By being biconcave in shape and having no nucleus and containing haemoglobin

97
Q

How do red blood cells transport oxygen efficiently

A

In teh form of oxyhaemoglobin

98
Q

How is oxyheamoglobin made

A

Oxygen + heamoglobin

99
Q

What are white blood cells

A

Part of the immune system and are involved in destroying pathogens

100
Q

what are pathogens

A

Disease-causing micro-organisms

101
Q

What are the two main type of white blood cells involved

A

Phagocytes and lymphocytes

102
Q

What do phagocytes do

A

Carry out phagocytosis by engulfing pathogens

103
Q

What is the process of phagocytosis

A

A phagocyte detects a pathogen it captures it by flowing its cell membrane around the pathogen which is then trapped and digested by enzymes

104
Q

What do lymphocytes do

A

Produce antibodies which destroy pathogens

105
Q

Describe the pathway that oxygenated blood takes through the heart

A

The blood enters the heart through the vena cava and then enters the right atrium after it contracts the blood then flows to the right ventricle. When that contracts the blood leaves through the pulmonary artery and goes to the lungs. The now oxygenated blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary vein which then enters through the left atrium of the heart and then flows to the left ventricle. It then leaves the heart through the aorta to the rest of the body

106
Q

What is the function of the right atria

A

Collects deoxygenated blood from the vena cava and passes it to the right ventricle

107
Q

What is the function of the left atria

A

Collects oxygenated blood form the pulmonary vein and passes it to the left ventricle

108
Q

Function of the right ventricle

A

Collects deoxygenated blood from the right atria and pumps it through the pulmonary artery

109
Q

Function of the left ventricle

A

Collects oxygenated blood from the left atria and pumps it through the aorta

110
Q

What is the functions of the heart halves

A

Between atria and ventricles-to prevent back flow from the ventricles to the atria

Exit of the ventricles- prevent back flow from the arteries to the ventricles

111
Q

Function of the aorta

A

accepts oxygenated blood pumped at high pressure by the left ventricle and distributes it to the body

112
Q

Function of the vena cava

A

Collects deoxygenated blood oozing at low pressure through the veins of the body and passes this blood to the right atria

113
Q

Function of the pulmonary vein

A

Collects oxygenated blood oozing at low pressure from the lungs and passes this blood to the left atria

114
Q

Function of the pulmonary artery

A

Accepts deoxygenated blood pumped at high pressure by the right ventricle and distributes it to the lungs

115
Q

Function of the coronary artery

A

Accepts oxygenated blood pumped at high pressure by the left ventricle and distributes it to the heart muscles itself

116
Q

What is the structure of an artery

A

They have thick muscular walls, a narrow central channel and carry blood under high pressure away from the heart

117
Q

What is the structure of a vein

A

Have thinner walls, a wider channel and carry blood under low pressure back towards the heart

118
Q

What do veins contain

A

Valves to stop the back flow of blood

119
Q

What do capillaries form

A

Networks at organs and tissues

120
Q

What features of capillaries allow efficient exchange of materials

A

One cell thick walls shortening the diffusion time, in very close contact with body tissue also decreasing diffusion distance

121
Q

What are lungs

A

Gas exchange organs

122
Q

What do lungs consist of

A

A large number of alveoli providing a large surface area

123
Q

How are oxygen and carbondioxide absorbed to or from the many blood vessels

A

Through the thin alveolar walls

124
Q

Where are nutrients from the food absorbed into

A

The villi in the small intestine

125
Q

What do teh large number of thin-walled villi proved

A

A large surface area

126
Q
A

biology (12 decks)

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