Motor Learning and Motor control

Question 1

What does the term motor skill mean?

Answer 1

The observable attempt of a person to produce a voluntary action to achieve a specific goal

Question 2

Describe movement precision as a classification of motor skills?

Answer 2

Movement precision- fine, eg archery(high precision with hand eye coordination), gross, eg butterfly stroke (low precision with large muscle groups involved)

Question 3

Describe movement continuity as a classification of motor skills?

Answer 3

continuous- eg cycling, one flowing movement that is hard to break down
serial- movement performed as one but can be broken down into components eg triple jump
discrete- backflip

Question 4

Describe control of pace as a classification of motor skills?

Answer 4

internal-your in control- football shot

external- your not in control of the pace- goal keeper reacting to the shot

Question 5

Describe the environmental effect as a classification of a motor skill?

Answer 5

open- performed in a changing environment

closed- performed in a stable environment

Question 6

What is meant by the term motor learning?

Answer 6

changes in internal processes that determine a persons capability for producing a motor task. the acquisition of knowledge or skills through study, experience or being taught

Question 7

What is meant by positive and negative transfer and can you provide an example?

Answer 7

positive- this is when learning can be transferred from practise to a game situation when drills are similar to the nature of the game eg doing a drill relating to a game situation

negative- not common, activities that can negatively transfer to the task which needs to be avoided when performance is critical, eg playing crazy golf before tournament

Question 8

What is meant by near and far transfer of learning?

Answer 8

near- when learning goal is a task that is similar to the training task, eg practising before a match

far- usually for developing general skills, occurs from one task to another very different task, eg overhand throw in tennis serve and volleyball spike, flexible motor skill can be adapted to different environments

Question 9

What did Lee in 1988 suggest about transfer appropriate processing?

Answer 9

best learning experiences are those that approximate most closely the processing activities of the transfer condition (dependent on athletes skill level)

Question 10

Why do working memory demands decrease as you progress through each stage of learning?

Answer 10

stored in long term memory

retrieval becomes more accessible

Question 11

What occurs in the cognitive stage of learning?

Answer 11

task first introduced
performance slow and awkward
cognitively demanding 
try and simplify the skill to reduce working memory demand 
self talk and verbal reminders needed
instructions for error correction

Question 12

What occurs in the associative stage of learning?

Answer 12

performance is more controlled and consistent 
focus on refining skill
concentrate on smaller details- timing 
fewer errors you can identify yourself 
reduced instruction
increase complexity of task

Question 13

What occurs in the autonomous stage of learning?

Answer 13

performance automatic
minimal verbal instruction
working memory demand reduced so we focus on other things (strategy, enviro)
performance improvements are slow ad less obvious so coach needs to be motivating

Question 14

What does the associative theory state about how we learn a behaviour?

Answer 14

Watson, 1924
anyone can become anything if we put them in a specific enviro
association between two stimuli or a behaviour and stimulus is learned
the more association, the more change in behaviour

Question 15

What are the 2 types of associative theories?

Answer 15

classical

operant

Question 16

Describe the associative theory of classical conditioning?

Answer 16

test why dogs produce saliva
bring food- causes saliva
ring a bell before food- usually means nothing
noticed dogs produced saliva after the bell even if there was no food

Question 17

Who created classical conditioning?

Answer 17

Pavlov 1927

Question 18

How does the classical conditioning theory work?

Answer 18

before-
conditioned stimulus (bell has no meaning)
unconditioned stimulus- food (meaningful and triggers saliva)
during-
repeat conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus many times
after-
conditioned stimulus (bell) produces conditioned response

Question 19

What causes extinction of a conditioned response?

Answer 19

when pairing of conditioned and unconditioned stimulus stops
this weakens the association

Question 20

Will the dog produce a conditioned stimulus if there was a different bell?

Answer 20

yes, because pavlov stated that its generalisable

conditioned response will still occur if the conditioned stimuli is very similar to the original conditioned stimuli

Question 21

What does Pavlov mean by discrimination?

Answer 21

conditioned response will not always occur when there is a conditioned stimuli

eg one bell brings food, one bell does not

Question 22

Is classical conditioning to do with conscious or unconscious effort?

Answer 22

unconscious, base on reflexes

saliva is a reflex

Question 23

Who created operant conditioning?

Answer 23

Skinner, 1938

Question 24

Is operant conditioning based on conscious or unconscious effort?

Answer 24

conscious as your doing something because of the response you will get after

Question 25

Describe what happened in Skinners box experiment?

Answer 25

rat in box every time rat hit lever the food will come out he also done other conditions

Question 26

What 3 things did Skinner come up with?

Answer 26

neutral operants- responses from the enviro that neither increase or decrease the probability of behaviour being repeated reinforcers (positive/ negative)- responses that increase the behaviour being repeated punishers- responses that decrease the probability of behaviour occurring again

Question 27

How has Skinner come up with the idea of reinforcers and punishers using his experiment?

Answer 27

positive reinforcer- rat will continue to press lever as he is getting a reward from it which is food negative reinforcer- rat will be on electric floor and every time the lever is pressed, electric floor will turn off punisher- electric floor will turn on when lever is pushed, this will decrease the behaviour of pressing the lever

Question 28

What did skinner conclude about his experiment?

Answer 28

behaviour can be changed by consequences no free will- this idea we have no sense of control in changing behaviour states important role of coaches, coaches can change behaviour

Question 29

What are some of the criticisms that have been raised with regards to the associative theory of learning?

Answer 29

uses rats, we cant compare humans to rats as we have higher cognitive function theory states that we always need conditioned stimulus and response to occur to avoid extinction but its found that partial reinforcement has greater resistance to extinction humans have knowledge of their correctness of behaviour

Question 30

What is the difference between feedback and reinforcement?

Answer 30

reinforcement- ability to repeat a skill or behaviour | feedback- ability to improve the skill

Question 31

Who created the closed loop model?

Answer 31

Adam, 1971

Question 32

Describe the closed loop model?

Answer 32

``` the executive (brain) send instruction to the effectors (limbs) this reacts with the environment feedback is produced which is fed to the reference mechanism reference mechanism gets stronger the more practise we have ```

Question 33

Can you describe the closed loop theory using a sporting example?

Answer 33

(executive)- we decide to kick the ball ij the goal the brain sends this information to the limbs (effectors) which kick the ball we then see what the outcome is feedback is sent to the reference mechanism where we identify if the outcome was what we expected and if not what can we do

Question 34

What is the difference between the closed loop theory and associative learning theories?

Answer 34

associative theories mainly look at reinforcement whereas closed loop theory looks at how a skill is improved?

Question 35

What are some of the criticisms that have been raised about the closed loop theory model?

Answer 35

storage problem- there would be too much to store if we needed to store all the reference mechanisms for each skill speed problem- movement is quick, we are slow to retrieve reference mechanisms novelty problem- does not explain how we perform new skills, we always are somewhat skilled in new skill

Question 36

Who created the schema theory of learning?

Answer 36

Schmidt, 1975

Question 37

How did the schema theory overcome the novelty problem?

Answer 37

instead of making so many references of correctness like the closed loop theory, the brain groups and stores relationships between certain elements eg library this refers to a schema

Question 38

What is a schema?

Answer 38

abstraction or a set of rules for determining behaviour

Question 39

What are the 2 types of schema?

Answer 39

recall schema- analysing relationships between initial conditions and knowledge of results, deciding based on past experience (motor programmes in novel situations) recognition schema-analysing relationship between actual and expected feedback (knowing when you made an error, kinaesthetic feel)

Question 40

How did Railbert in 1977 overcome the problem of novelty, speed and storage problem that the closed loop theory had?

Answer 40

Railbert conducted an experiment which has shown that no matter what limb you use, there is invariant features, eg writing sentence with different parts of your body,

Question 41

How much practise is required in the information processing theory to develop retrieval ? (k.Andres Ericsson)

Answer 41

the amount of time spent in deliberate practise positively relates to the individuals performance best performance- 10,000h of practise level of expertise is determined by the type and amount of practise

Question 42

What are the characteristics of deliberate practise?

Answer 42

``` used to improve performance in specific task repeated continuous feedback highly demanding mentally not fun ```

Question 43

What does the challenge point frame work state?

Answer 43

we need to consider the skill level of individual, the difficulty of activity and the amount of information that is available can manipulate task difficulty and amount of info available to provide optimal learning the optimal challenge point is different for different skill level

Question 44

What does the question, what is the best way to direct a learners attention, refer to?

Answer 44

information available

Question 45

What does the question, what are the best conditions of practise to improve the encoding and retrieval processes, refer to?

Answer 45

manipulating difficulty

Question 46

What are the 2 types of task difficulty?

Answer 46

nominal task difficulty- has only characteristics of the task, irrespective to the person performing it or conditioned under the task is performed functional task difficulty- refers to how challenging task is relative to skill of individual performing the task and conditions its being performed in

Question 47

What are the 2 things we need to think about in practise in terms of task difficulty?

Answer 47

potential learning benefit | performance in practise

Question 48

Should we make tasks easy all the time and give loads of information to achieve high performance in practise ?

Answer 48

no, the graph states that performers should find the task difficult and challenging in order to have a high performance in practise

Question 49

What is the optimal challenge point for an expert and a novice?

Answer 49

low for novice with easy task | high for expert with hard difficulty

Question 50

How can the coach manipulate task difficulty?

Answer 50

constant or varied | blocked or random

Question 51

What are the 2 continuums for structure of practise?

Answer 51

contextual interference- blocked, random | variability of practise- constant, variable

Question 52

Define the 4 structures of practise?

Answer 52

constant- one skill repeated with no variation variable- one skill repeated with variations within the skill random- multiple skills with variations of the skills blocked- multiple skills with no variations of the skills

Question 53

What research did Mccracken and Stelmach 1977 conduct about the structure of practise?

Answer 53

they compared constant and blocked practise they used a simple motor skill in practise they found that constant practise is better

Question 54

What research did Shea and Morgan 1979 conduct about the structure of practise?

Answer 54

they compared blocked and random practise using a simple motor skill they found that in practise, blocked practise is better

Question 55

What did the research suggest about structure of practise?

Answer 55

random and variable- more cognitive effort, good for learning blocked and constant- less cognitive effort, better for practise specificity is key aswell

Question 56

What does the challenge point framework state about random practise?

Answer 56

for tasks with differing levels of nominal difficulty, random practise is better for tasks with low nominal difficulty for individuals with differing skill levels, blocked practise is better for beginners random practise is better for intermediate specificity better for experts

Question 57

How do we direct learners attention?

Answer 57

instructional approach

Question 58

What is the instructional approach?

Answer 58

traditional approach- explicit coaches tells you what to do better for practise implicit approach athlete focussed little or no instruction better for learning

Question 59

Why is the explicit approach bad for learners?

Answer 59

they will become too dependent on coaches instruction so when task changes, performance will drop

Question 60

What are the problems with explicit approach?

Answer 60

overloads working memory | overloads attentional capacity

Question 61

Why is implicit approach better for learners?

Answer 61

less demand on working memory less attentional processes reduced rule formation

Question 62

What are the 3 types of implicit learning approaches?

Answer 62

guided/ discovery learning- no instruction analogy learning- decrease instruction use analogy errorless learning- reduce errors

Question 63

What study was conducted to see what type of approach was best for learning and who conducted it?

Answer 63

Liao and Masters 2002 tabel tennis forhand spin analogy- shake hand, draw right angle triangle analogy was the best

Question 64

What are the 2 types of feedback?

Answer 64

intrinsic- provided by athletes own sensory systems, athletes receive natural consequences of moving extrinsic- feedback provided from external source

Question 65

What are the two types of intrinsic feedback?

Answer 65

knowledge of performance (vision, proprioception) | knowledge of results (basket, goal)

Question 66

What is the knowledge of results and performance in extrinsic feedback?

Answer 66

KOP- instructor, coach | KOR- lap time, distance jumped

Question 66

What is the knowledge of results and performance in extrinsic feedback?

Answer 66

KOP- instructor, coach | KOR- lap time, distance jumped

Question 67

What are the 2 types of extrinsic feedback?

Answer 67

prescriptive feedback- describes the errors a learner makes during performance and suggests something a learner may do to correct it descriptive feedback (expert)- describe the errors a learner makes during a performance of a skill

Question 68

What are the 4 functions of extrinsic feedback?

Answer 68

motivation- energise learners, increase efforts to achieve goals set reinforcement- repeat actions they produced or avoid errors information- what learners should do to refine skills, correct errors dependence- rely too heavily, drop in performance when feedback is reduced

Question 69

How often should we give feedback?

Answer 69

instantaneous- immediately following movement completion delayed- provided several seconds after the movement faded- high frequency initially and diminishes during later learning summary- provided after multiple trials (eg every 3 trials)- can use own intrinsic feedback in between trials

Question 70

What is bandwidth feedback?

Answer 70

feedback only given when errors exceed past a certain tolerance level decreases learners being dependent on feedback later on they are really receiving feedback on each trial (no feedback, did good)

Question 71

What does the guidance hypotheses state about how often we should provide feedback?

Answer 71

role of extrinsic feedback in learning is to guide performance towards a goal if provided too frequently, it can cause learner to develop dependency on availability of feedback results in drop in performance when feedback is not given during a game

Question 72

What does the challenge point framework suggest about how much feedback we should provide?

Answer 72

for high nominal difficulty task- instantaneous knowledge of results provides largest learning effect low nominal difficulty- less frequent

Question 73

What is learner regulated feedback?

Answer 73

only provide feedback when athlete requests expert, autonomous

Question 74

In Schmidts schema theory of motor learning, which of the following is said to generate a motor programme for appropriate action in novel situations?

Answer 74

recall schema

Question 75

According to the challenge point framework, what are the 2 things that can be manipulated to achieve the optimal challenge for an individual?

Answer 75

potential available info | functional task difficulty