Memory And Attention

Question 1

What is memory and who defined it?

Answer 1

memory is the capacity that permits organisms to benefit from past experiences
Endel Tulving 1985

Question 2

What is encoding?

Answer 2

memory process involving the transformation of information to be remembered in to a form that can be stored in memory

Question 3

What is storage?

Answer 3

process of placing information into long term memory

Question 4

What is rehersal?

Answer 4

process that enables individuals to transfer information from working memory to long term memory

Question 5

What is retrieval?

Answer 5

memory process involving the search through long term memory for information needed to perform a task at hand

Question 6

Who and when was the modal model created?

Answer 6

Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968

Question 7

Describe the modal model?

Answer 7

sensory memory- last less than 1sec, literal sensory info with unlimited capacity
short term- lasts 1-60 sec, more abstract, stores 5-9 items
long term- very abstract and unlimited

Question 8

Who criticised the modal model?

Answer 8

Baddely criticised this model and created a multicomponent model with more detail on short term memory/ working memory

Question 9

Who created the multicomponent model?

Answer 9

Baddeley and Hitch 1974

Question 10

What does the working memory involve?

Answer 10

central executive

phonological loop
episodic buffer
visio spatial sketchpad

Question 11

What is long term memory?

Answer 11

component system in the structure of memory that serves as a relatively permanent storage repository for information

Question 12

What does long term memory split into?

Answer 12

declarative / explicit

non declarative / implicit

Question 13

What is declarative memory and what does it split into, who made it?

Answer 13

declarative- facts events experiences

episodic- events
semantic- facts
made by tulving 1985

Question 14

What is non declarative memory and what does it split into, who made it?

Answer 14

Tulving, 1985
non declarative

procedural-skill learning, priming, conditioning
storing and retrieving information about motor skills
know how to do something

Question 15

What did Baddelely discuss about in the multicomponent model?

Answer 15

how long term and working memory link

collapsed short term and sensory memory together

Question 16

Describe the central executive component of the working memory in the multicomponent model?

Answer 16

central executive- drives the whole system and allocates data to the other subsystems coordinating it with long term memory

deals with cognitive tasks and mental arithmetic and problem solving

Question 17

Describe the phonological loop a s a subsystem from the central executive?

Answer 17

responsible from short term storage of verbal information

Question 18

Describe the visio spatial sketch pad as a subsystem of the central executive?

Answer 18

visually detected spatial information is stored for short periods of time

Question 19

What is the episodic buffer?

Answer 19

developed later
integrates the other systems to form units of visual, spatial and verbal information with time so that things occur in a continuing sequence

it provides a link between other subsystems and long term memory

Question 20

Why is there subsystems in the working memory?

Answer 20

its shown we are able to concentrate and engage with different things at once

eg-we are able to watch a lecture and listen at the same time

Question 21

What is the working memory?

Answer 21

mechanism of retaining a small amount of information in an active state for the use of ongoing tasks

operates to temporarily store and use recently presented information

serves as temporary interactive workplace to integrate recently presented information with information retrieved from long term memory

Question 22

What is the purpose of the working memory?

Answer 22

problem solving
decision making
prepare for upcoming activities

Question 23

What is the storage for the working memory?

Answer 23

20-30 seconds

Question 24

What study was conducted to figure out the duration of the working memory and who conducted the study?

Answer 24

Lloyd Peterson and Margaret Peterson 1959

ppts given consonants in triplets
to prevent rehearsal they were given a distracting task
people were tested at various times for recall
after 12 seconds, most memory decayed

Question 25

What is the capacity of working memory and who created it?

Answer 25

7 +- 2 items George Miller 1956 magic number 7 chunking information makes us remember more (chunking 5-9 items)

Question 26

Why do we feel overwhelmed sometimes?

Answer 26

Cowan, 2005 | we feel overwhelmed by new info because of limitations of the working memory

Question 27

How do we overcome feeling overwhelmed by new information?

Answer 27

give attention to it

Question 28

What is attention?

Answer 28

focalisation and limitation of information processing resources characteristics associated with consciousness, awareness and cognitive effort

Question 29

What do the 3 characteristics of attention mean?

Answer 29

consciousness- what we are thining about awareness- what we are aware of when performing activities cognitive effort- how much mental effort do we require to perform the activity or how demanding is the task the more demanding, the more attention it needs

Question 30

What is attentional focus?

Answer 30

directing of attention to specific characteristics in a performance enviro or action prep activities

Question 31

Who created the attentional focus model and what are the 2 continuums?

Answer 31

Nideffers 1993 external (enviro) and internal (indiv) broad (more info) and narrow (attention to one thing)

Question 32

Describe the attentional focus model?

Answer 32

assess- ext, broad, assess enviro analyse- int, broad, tactics, strategy perform- ext, narrow, aim fro one target rehearse- int, narrow, routine, imagine scoring goal

Question 33

What is reaction time and who made the definition?

Answer 33

time between the onset of a stimulus or stimuli and the initiation of a movement Magil and Anderson, 2010

Question 34

Describe Welfords early filter theories of attention 1952?

Answer 34

encoding and filtering occurs at the same time all processes require attention any stimulus requires attention we cant give attention to multiple stimuli only one stimulus response operation at a time

Question 35

Describe Broadbents early theory of filtered attention 1958?

Answer 35

attention is required later we can encode multiple stimuli, encode background info but only pay attention to one parallel processing up to filter filter is perceptual analysis

Question 36

Describe Deutsch and Deutsch (1963) and Normans (1968)early theories of attention?

Answer 36

perceptual analysis is automatic filter is later on based on semantic characteristics cocktail party effect

Question 37

What do the early theories of attention collectively say?

Answer 37

we can only give response to one thing at a time

Question 38

What evidence is provided for the early filter theories that states we can only provide response to one thing at a time?

Answer 38

when doing a task then beginning a second one, the refractory period should equal to stimulus onset asynchrony however it does not if we start a second task a 1sec later then we should finish 1sec later but it takes a little longer

Question 39

How can we shorten the refractory period/ what are the factors that affect the length of a refractory period?

Answer 39

we can always improve the refractory period but it will always be longer than stimulus onset asynchrony practise- increase in practise reduces RP task one complexity- the more simple the shorter the RP stimulus response compatibility

Question 40

Who created the multiple resource theory and what does it state?

Answer 40

Wickens (1992) resources for processing info are available from 3 different sources each resource is limited to how much info it can process simultaneously when info is encoded, it goes into resources if encoded info goes to same resource, they both have to compete as there is limited capacity we cant response to those things at once

Question 41

According to multiple resource theory, what happens if there is information encoded that go into the same resource?

Answer 41

when two tasks must be performed simultaneously and share common resource, they will be performed less well than 2 tasks competing for a different resource

Question 42

What are the 3 resources in the multiple resource theory?

Answer 42

input and output modalities- vision, limbs, speech stages of info processing- perception, memory, encoding, response output codes of processing info- verbal and spatial codes

Question 43

What is Hicks law on theories of attention and when was it made?

Answer 43

1952 | the time it takes to make a decision increases with the number and complexity of choices

Question 44

What is Kahnemans theory of attention and when was it made?

Answer 44

1973 he equates attention with cognitive effort proposed flexible capacity limits vary with enviro, task being performed and individual conditions

Question 45

What is Kahnemans central capacity theory?

Answer 45

1973 states we compete for one resource instead of 3 the resource is the central attention capacity

Question 46

Who came up with the dual task technique?

Answer 46

Magil and Anderson 2010

Question 47

What are the 2 types of dual task?

Answer 47

continuous secondary task technique | probe reaction time task

Question 48

How do we assess attention demands of activities using dual task?

Answer 48

secondary task technique-looking at how primary task is affected when a secondary task is added eg- novice and experts dribbling- then given task to count down in 7 from 97 probe reaction time- how conditions of primary task affect the secondary task eg- free throw and react to beep increase attention to free throw in game which has slower reaction time for beep

Question 49

Why do we forget in working memory?

Answer 49

trace decay | forgetting occurs in the passing of time

Question 50

Do we forget in long term memory?

Answer 50

LTM- unlimited capacity and duration therefore time does not impact forgetting forgetting here involves misplacing info or interference from another activity rather than decay forgetting refers to retrieval problem rather tan info no longer in memory

Question 51

What are the 2 types of causes for forgetting/ interference?

Answer 51

proactive | retroactive

Question 52

What is proactive interference?

Answer 52

old info hinders the recall of new info the more similar the old and new info is, the worse the interference practise is a way of overcoming this interference

Question 53

What is retroactive interference?

Answer 53

new info hinders the recall of old info

Question 54

What skills are more resistant to long term forgetting through retroactive interference?

Answer 54

continuous motor skills are less likely than discrete motor skills size of verbal component amount of practise

Question 55

What can we use to assess remembering and forgetting?

Answer 55

explicit memory tests | testing what a person consciously can remember

Question 56

What are the 2 types of explicit memory tests?

Answer 56

recognition tests- selecting correct response from several alternative ones, MCQ recall tests- requires a person to produce a required response with a few if any cues

Question 57

What are the 4 ways to enhance memory performance?

Answer 57

increasing a movements meaningfulness the intention to remember subjective organisation the encoding specificity principle

Question 58

How can increasing movements meaningfulness enhance memory?

Answer 58

new coordination pattern of movements will be more abstract than concrete (meaningful) movements that are concrete or meaningful will be remembered better

Question 59

What study supported the idea that increasing a movements meaningfulness will enhance memory of it?

Answer 59

Chase and Simon 1973 asked ppts to remember chess board those who played chess frequently had better recall because there was meaningfulness

Question 60

How do we make a movement more meaningful?

Answer 60

use visual metaphoric imagery- develop a picture in the mind of what the movement is like through a similar metaphor attach a meaningful verbal label to he movement eg- release cricket ball at 12 o clock

Question 61

How does intending to remember increase memory?

Answer 61

intentional memory situations- conscious awareness that a recall or recognition test will occur, this is better at remembering incidental memory situations- unexpected test of memory intention to remember leads to better remembering than no intention performance in an incidental situation is better than if no experience occurred

Question 62

How does subjective organisation increase memory?

Answer 62

when learning large amounts of information then grouping or organising the information in to units helps chunking

Question 63

How does the encoding specificity principle improve memory?

Answer 63

there is a close relationship between encoding and retrieval memory processes memory test performance is directly related to the amount of similarity between practise and the context if training is similar to the match then there will be better performance

Question 64

Which theory suggests that specific resources are available to process different sources of information?

Answer 64

multiple resource theory

Question 65

Research evidence has been provided for the filter theories of attention by demonstrating that response to a second stimulus is delayed because the first stimulus is still being processes, what is the term?

Answer 65

psychological refractory period