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Psych1001 > Motivation part 2 > Flashcards

Motivation part 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Sexual Motivations: Evolutionary perspective:

A

sexual behaviour is shaped by natural selection

Motivated to engage in behaviours that increased reproductive success for our ancestors (fooled us to enjoy sex to make us reproduce)

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2
Q

Reproductive success

A

passing genes to next generation to continue passing genes on

Large number of offspring, low investment (fish, amphibians)
Small number of offspring, high investment (birds, mammals)

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3
Q
  • Sex can cause Bonding:
A

Can cause intense emotional bond
Neurotransmitters: endorphins and oxytocin are released during sex (related to pleasure)
May facilitate co-parenting

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4
Q

Humans motivated to engage in sex without reproduction

A

Genes ‘want’ us to reproduce

We have developed workarounds
§ Birth control
§ Condoms etc.

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5
Q

Human cultures restrict sexual behaviour

A

Social groups have rules regarding sex

The rules can vary between societies

  • Some tend to restrict sexual behaviour of women and low-status men
  • Some are more permissive toward sexuality

Humans have intense moral (or disgust) reactions to sexual behaviour that violates their values

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6
Q

Sexual Behaviour

A

Sexual behaviour has complex effects
- Related to our values and morals
- Affects emotions and relationships
- Physical health effects
Older people who have more sex tend to me healthier
Improves cardiovascular functioning
BUT: can have STIs and pregnancy

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7
Q

Gender differences

A

Male sexuality (based on self reports)

  • Stronger and more specific sex drive
  • More arousal, sexual fantasies, masturbation, porn
  • More infidelity, difficulty staying faithful
  • More permissive attitudes toward sex

Female sexuality (based on self reports)

  • Sex behaviour more changeable and concealed
  • Open to bisexual behaviour
  • Physical arousal to wider variety of stimuli
  • Reported arousal does not correspond to physical arousal
  • Under-report sexual experiences
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8
Q

Explanations for gender differences

A

Biological

  • Testosterone levels
  • Concealed (female) vs obvious (male) physical responses may explain arousal report diffs

Evolutionary: sexual selection
- Women need to be more careful about sex while men can have as much as they want with no consequences

Social role
- Cultures are more concerned with controlling female sexuality like slut shaming etc.

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9
Q

Sexual orientation

A
  • Heterosexual
    • Homosexual
    • Bisexual

Orientation is not influenced by:

  • Being reared by gay parents
  • Parenting style
  • Childhood sexual experimentation
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10
Q

Origins of sexual orientation

A

Homosexual behaviour is common in non-human animals e.g. dolphins
In some cultures/subcultures, homosexual behaviour is not associated with a person’s identity
Estimates of non-heterosexual orientation range from 2-10% in humans
Sexual orientation appears to be multiply caused

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11
Q

Orientation is related to

A

Genetics - considered heritable
- About 50% of both MZ twins to be gay (very heritable!)

Corpus callosum (in the brain)- it is larger in gay men

Prenatal hormones (high-T women): women exposed to a lot of testosterone while they’re in the womb tend to turn out gay

Social factors (gender non-conforming behaviour in childhood) can lead to gay behaviour later in life

These are mostly just correlations and does not mean causation.

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12
Q

What is sexual behaviour

A
  1. Action that makes fertilization possible
  2. Behaviour involving sexual response of the body
  3. Behaviour that is especially intimate and personal
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13
Q

Kinsey’s (1948) research

A

Non-presentative samples: but its very difficult to get people to do these experiments

Suggested that many people were engaging in a variety of sexual behaviours that had been considered ‘perversions’ (sex which is abnormal/unacceptable)

Made study of sexual behaviour more acceptable

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14
Q

Human sexual response pattern

A

Masters and Johnson

  • Observed and measured masturbation and intercourse
  • They debunked earlier notions that vaginal lubrication originated from the cervix and found that some women were multi-orgasmic

LOOK AT PIC IN NOTES
Arousal: rising muscle tension and blow flow to genitals
Plateau: muscle tension, erection, vaginal lubrication, increased BP,HR, breathing, penile/clitoral erection
Orgasm: pleasure response, involuntary muscle contractions
Resolution: decreased arousal. Men have refractory period following orgasm (can’t ejaculate for a while) and women don’t

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15
Q

Human Sexual Response

A
  1. Not always linear and can stop at any point
  2. Roughly similar for men and women
  3. Women’s response takes longer (on average)
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16
Q

Sex and psychological well-being

A 
Motivation for sex in young people
		○ To connect
		○ Improve self-esteem
		○ Gain partner's approval
		○ Avoid feeling distressed or lonely

People who had sex to promote intimacy had fewer partners, less unsafe sex, more stable relationships

Benefits for adults having sex
○ Greater life satisfaction
○ More satisfied with their relationship

Sex and depression

  • Breakups of relationships which can lead to depression
  • Teen relationships may not be taken seriously by adults
  • Can end suddenly

Sexuality intensifies bonds between people which can make it more difficult to go through a breakup

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17
Q

self regulation

A

Process where an organism controls behaviour to pursue other objectives

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18
Q

Situations that require self regulation:

A
  • Conflict in motivations

- Can involve conscious goals

19
Q

Resisting temptations

A

Delay of gratification

  • Putting off pleasurable experience for a future payoff
  • Difficult because immediate rewards tend to be valued more than delayed rewards

How to do it

  • There is hot emotion (want of immediate reward) and cold cognition (wait for later)
  • Reduce motivational characteristics (place reward out of sight)
  • Internal distraction (focus attention away from reward)
  • External distraction (toy in the room to distract)
  • Imagery (cool characteristics of the reward) think of it objectively
20
Q

Factors in Goal Success

A 
Specific goals (not something broad) e.g. I want above this mark in this class
Moderately challenging 
Long term purpose of goal and also short term steps 
Behavioural intentions: 'when BLAH happens, i will do BLAH'
21
Q

Implemental Intentions (Peter Gollwitzer)

A

Bring pple into a lab and think about a goal they have
Then list 5 most important steps to accomplish goal
Then plan in accomplishing each step
Consequence:
These things actually impact people’s lives
E.g. Eat low fat diet, public transport use etc.

22
Q

Other factors in goal success

A

Monitoring progress: physical fitness apps, weigh in everyday

Commitment: make it public

23
Q

How to define emotion

A

Consists of neural circuits, response systems and feeling state that motivates and organises cognition and action

- Emotion communicates to others 
- Emotion regulates our responses

A psychological state that can involve changes in physiological arousal, conscious experience, motivation and behavioural expression
- Physiological arousal: refers to Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic nervous system –> arouses
Parasympathetic nervous system –> calms

24
Q

Conscious experience

A

Emotions are experienced as positive or negative in valence
○ Positive emotion: joy, contentment, calm etc.
○ Negative emotions: fear, anger etc.

25
Q

Emotion and arousal

A

Can be associated with different degrees of arousal

  • High arousal emotions: fear, anger, joy, desire
  • Low arousal emotions: contentment, calm, sadness, boredom
26
Q

Emotion and motivation

A

Can be associated with different motivational directions
○ Approach-related emotions: anger, joy, desire
○ Avoidance related emotions: fear, disgust

27
Q

Theories of Emotion

A

James-Lange Theory
Emotion is the result of physiological arousal that occurs
Stimulus –> physiological arousal –> emotion
Body responds to the environment
Individual’s perception of these responses is emotional feeling LOOK AT PIC IN NOTES

Cannon’s criticisms
Questioned this
Performed experiments on cats
Suggested that bodily responses are not necessary
Reponses are same for all emotions
Insensitive internal organs and feedback
Responses are too slow to cause feeling
Evidence: artificial inducement of arousal into animal did not cause feeling

Cannon’s Emergency Theory
Emergency reaction to need for energy
Called this flight or fight (one response in the brain)
Autonomic nervous system
○ Sympathetic –> energy expended
○ Parasympathetic –> storing energy for future
Body’s role less important than in James-Lange Theory
All emotions have the same physio

28
Q

Two-Factor Theory (Schachter/Singer)

A

Physiological arousal (bodily arousal)

Cognitive labelling
- When u have bodily arousal, Need the label to cause emotion
- Arousal –> interpret external cues –> label emotion
LOOK AT PIC

29
Q

Schatcher and Singer Experiment

A

Cover story: test ability of vitamin supplements
Injected participants with either epinephrine or a placebo
They either
○ informed symptoms to participant
○ Misinformed symptoms to participant
○ Ignorant: didn’t tell participant anything
Left them alone for 20 mins
Then manipulated the situation
Confederate Acted very angry or euphoric about what they need to do in the study
Then ask participant to report their emotion
Result:
- Ignorant and misinformed showed more emotional feelings and behaviour than informed of side effects of epinephrine
- Plabebo didnt differ from ignorant

Their experiment and two factor theory led to lots of excitement in this field

30
Q

Excitation Transfer

A

When arousal occurs, it takes time to decay
During decay period, person may incorrectly identify source of arousal and transfer arousal to another source.
Misattribution of arousal to incorrect source
Transfer occurs when persons are less aware of arousal

Cantor, Zillman, Byrant

  • Physical exercise to increase arousal
  • View erotic film for 1, 5, 9 min after exercise
  • Result: 5 min group rated film as more sexually arousing
  • This is bc at 5 mins, they do not realise they are aroused from exercise while at 0mins they think it is bc of exercise.

Capilano River Bridge Study

  • Had people walk across a high suspension bridge vs a low bridge
  • Male participants met a woman on bridge
  • Rated attractiveness and more likely to call woman was higher on suspension bridge than on lower bridge
31
Q

Synopsis of 2 Factor Theory

A
  • What generates arousal?

- Cognitive interpretations

32
Q

Autonomic Differences (Levenson, Ekman & Friesen 1990)

A

Didnt believe that all emotions look the same in the body
Got people to pose facial expressions, while in that expression, they noted their physical arousal.
Emotional facial expressions cause subjective experience of emotion
Heart rate was more accelerated with anger, fear and sadness than with disgust and surprise
Happiness accelerated heart rate more than surprise
Skin Conductance –> fear and disgust were larger than happy and surprise
Finger temp was greater in anger than in fear.
ALSO
Higher quality voluntary facial configurations associated with stronger autonomic differences
Self-reported emotion not necessary for autonomic differences
EXTENSIONS
These experiments have been performed all over the world for all ages and cultures

33
Q

summary of emotion theories

A

LOOK AT PIC

34
Q

Cognitive interpretations

A

Primary Debate- which comes first: feeling or thinking

Lazarus: appraisals (thoughts) determine feelings
- Its not the situation that affects our emotions, it is our interpretation of the situation

Zajonc: emotional experience may occur before appraisals

35
Q

Emotion and the Brain

- Amygdala

A

Fear system: activated through two neural pathways (direct and indirect pathway)
Direct pathway is fast but not detailed
Revealed that there is a direct pathway between the sensory thalamus and the amygdala
Emotional stimulus also at the same time sent to sensory cortex for high level cognitions like appraisals and interpretations. And then fed back to amygdala to either reduce or increase the fear.
- This pathway is slower but also more detailed.

Amygdala is important for many emotional responses
Studied extensively in relation to fear
Projects to many other regions of the brain

36
Q

Face Feedback Hypothesis

A

Pple form sad vs happy expressions
Then viewed a funny clip
Happy expressions caused people to view the clip to be more funny
THUS
Facial expressions can influence emotions
Supports James-Lange theory of emotions (the body’s responses infleunce our experience
Supports primacy of emotion (Zajonc)
- Facial expressions influence emotion even when persons are unaware that they are making an emotion expression
Also experiments holding pen in mouth with lips OR with teeth (smiling)

37
Q

Emotions motivate behaviours

A
  • Instrumental behaviours

- Facial and bodily expressions

38
Q

Families of emotions

A

Classes of emotion states that share any characteristics in terms of subjective feelings. Behavioural expressions
May be subtle differences within family/class
Anger: linguistic exemplar of irritation, rage, fury
○ Irritation may be a lowkey version of anger
○ Fury may be high key version of anger

39
Q

Emotional expressions

A

Anger: high approach, teeth bared to bite, warning to back off
Joy: moderate approach, communicates attraction
Sadness: reduced approach motivation, conserves energy for body, communicates sympathy/social support
Disgust: avoidance motivation, expelling bad food, closes off sense organs (nose), communicates to others a warning signal to go away bc nasty here.
Suprise: high arousal, takes in sensory info (see better), communicates to others to pay attention.
Fear: avoidance motivation, takes in sensory info (see better), communicates don’t hurt me or watch out!
Contempt:
○ Condescension toward object of contempt,
○ When others violate social conventions
○ Feelings of moral superiority
○ Motivates them to Exclude wrong doers
○ Comminucates to others that ‘you are wrong’
Embarrassment:
○ When violates social conventions
○ Motivates u to hide or withdraw
○ correcting mistakes, repairing relationships
○ Communicates to others ‘im sorry’
Pride:
○ Motivates actions toward self-goals
○ Instrumental: alerts others that person
deserves group acceptance/status
○ Communicates to others that ‘i’m dominant, but
still your friend, don’t attack’

40
Q

FACS Coding

A

Only comprehensive anatomically based system for scoring facial movement

41
Q

Behavioural Expression

A
  • Facial expressions most often studied
    • Other expressions of emotion
      ○ Touch
      ○ Full body displays (pride for example)
      ○ Sound (voice and music)
42
Q

Hormones and Emotions in Humans

A

Oxytocin (the love drug): involved in affiliation, trust
Testosterone: angry aggression, low empathy
Cortisol: involved in stress, anxiety
Rarely 1 to 1 relationship between psychological and physiological variables
○ Oxytocin does not only cause affiliation
○ Affiliation is caused by more than oxytocin

43
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

An oscillating voltage recorded on scalp surface
○ Reflects large number of neurons
○ Right prefrontal cortex (RFC) –> withdrawal
○ Left prefrontal cortex (LFC) –> approach

44
Q

Sociocultural Factors

A

Basic emotion expressions are universal.

Basic emotion expressions are innate (blind and children)

Display rules vary across cultures

Psych1001 (10 decks)

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