Motivation part 1

Question 1

Motivation

Answer 1

Why we behave in a certain way

The force that moves organisms to behave the way they do (But it may not result in behaviour)

Question 2

Motivation:

Has Direction

Answer 2

Approach motivation: the impulse to move toward a stimulus

Avoidance motivation: impulse to move away from a stimulus

Question 3

Motivation:

Has Intensity

Answer 3

Strength of the urge

From 0 to high level

Question 4

Motivation:

Is Partially voluntary

Answer 4

Related to behaviour but not the same as behaviour
Often have 2 or more conflicting motivations
Self control: may require choosing long term goal over short term goal

Question 5

Motivation:

Can be conscious or below awareness

Answer 5

Can be more difficult to put into words than many other psychological states
Subject to rationalisation
Can be done unconsciously

Question 6

Motivation:

Is Related to emotion

Answer 6

Emotion can be seen as the force behind motivation

• Approach emotions: desire, interest, anger
• Avoidance emotion: fear, disgust

Question 7

Theories of motivation

Answer 7

Evolutionary approach:

Charles Darwin: connection of evolutionary biology to psych processes

Instincts: unlearned responses to stimuli that is universal to the species

Adaptive: organisms are motivated to engage in behaviours that help them to pass on their genes (reproductive success)

Humans possess high degree of flexibility of behaviour (differences between people)

Question 8

Theory of evolution

Answer 8

Evolutionary success (mating)
Adaptive tasks like mating, parenting, nutrition, social relations
Not a struggle for survival
Rather it is a race for reproductive success

Question 9

Key Ideas to Evolution

Answer 9

Variability: differences within a species between each other
- Species with more variability are more likely to survive when environment changes

Heritability: passing on to offspring

Natural Selection

• Viability: live long enough to reproduce
• Fertility: mating success
• Fecundity: number of offspring

Question 10

Evolved psychological mechanisms

Answer 10

A set of processes inside an organism that
1. Exist in the form they do because they solved specific problems of individual survival or reproduction

2. Take only certain classes of input where input
   - Can be either external or internal (outside/inside the body)
   - Can be actively extracted from the environment or passively received from the environment
3. Transforms that information into output through a procedure where output
   - Regulates physiological activity, provides information to other psychological mechanisms, or produces action
   - Solves a particular adaptational problem

Question 11

Adaptations

Answer 11

inherited and depends on environmental conditions

Question 12

By-products:

Answer 12

not adaptive

E.g. Whiteness of bones does not solve evolutionary problem

Question 13

Exaptation

Answer 13

feature now enhances fitness for one function (flying) was originally adapted for different function (warmth)

E.g. feathers for birds were originally for warmth but have now adapted to be for flying.

Question 14

Spandrels

Answer 14

incidental by-product that became functional adaptation

The brain takes something that is not adaptive and makes it a functional adaptation
Speculated that most functions in the brain are spandrels

Question 15

Implications for behaviour

Answer 15

There is Continuity between animals and humans
Abandon idea that animals have instincts and humans have minds

Thorndike: Animal intelligence
- Animal behaviour is affected by its consequences (they learn through experience)
- Law of effect
If it does something to create positive consequence it
will keep doing it and vice versa with negative
consequences

Question 16

Do humans have instincts:

Answer 16

James:
Complex unlearned response to characteristic stimulus
Reflex –> instinct –> learning
All of these 3 things aid us in our behaviour

Question 17

Instincts

Answer 17

Tendency to act in specific way due to something in the environment.

And the action must come about naturally (not a result of learning)

Question 18

Variability of behaviour from instinct

Answer 18

Experience can modify instinctive behaviour

Question 19

Concerning sympathy

Answer 19

Sympathy is most likely an instinct

Question 20

• List of instincts

Answer 20

Rivalry, curiosity, sociability, shyness, hunting etc.

Question 21

Problem with instinct concept

Answer 21

How many are there?
Descriptive not explanatory
What is and is not an instinct
Vague and arbitrary
Circular reasoning (Holt): everything you do can be called an instinct.
e.g. Thumb twiddling instinct AND thumb-not-twiddling instinct

Question 22

Ethology (study of behaviour biologically)

Answer 22

Behaviourists believe we are born as a blank slate and everything is learnt
Study of behaviour in a natural setting
Identify action patterns of species and causes of action patterns
Evolution, development, function of behaviour
Instinctive behaviours exist because they have or had adaptive value for the species

Question 23

Behaviour as viewed by ethology

Answer 23

Certain mechanisms to help break down instinct:
- Action specific energy: in the perceiving animal
- Key stimuli: releaser, sign stimulus (environment)
- Innate releasing mechanism: brain mechanism that detects key stimulus
- Fixed action pattern
Instinctive behaviour sequence that is indivisible and
runs to completion
- E.g. Kelp Gull chicks peck at red spot (key stimulus) on mother’s beak to stimulate regurgitating reflex

Question 24

Key Stimuli and Innate Releasing Mechanisms

Answer 24

These are all adaptive behaviours
May even be socially adaptive behaviours in humans
Example: Monkeys and recognition of facial expressions
- Chimpanzees can recognise facial expressions in humans

Another key stimulus can be a baby face: key features of a baby’s face that makes it something you want to take care of include big eyes, small noses etc.
- This idea was picked up by Disney etc. for their cartoon characters that don’t want to be harmed look like babies vs the evil characters

Question 25

Preparedness Theory

Answer 25

one way the concept of instinct came back to Psychology Innate association between stimulus and response (instinct) Seligman: phobias often involve evolutionary threats Explains why we develop phobias for snakes and lightning easier than automobiles and electrical outlets

Question 26

Preparedness Hypothesis

Answer 26

We carry an innate biological tendency, acquired through natural selection to respond quickly and automatically to stimuli that posed a survival threat to our ancestors. E.g. there are no snakes in Ireland but those people can still fear snakes Conditioning experiment Acquisition: present CS (photo) followed by UCS (electric shock) Extinction: presented CS without UCS and record skin conductance Result: longer extinction time for angry face photo than happy faces even when CS is subliminal (the person didn't see the photo properly) Longer extinction time for outgroup/neutral faces than ingroup/neutral faces

Question 27

Theories of Motivation | Behaviourist or Drive Reduction Theory

Answer 27

When a person has a biological need (food or water) they will become driven to get that need 1. Biological need: a deprivation that energizes drive to eliminate deprivation 2. Drive: internal tension state that occurs because of a need 3. Motivated to satisfy drive 4. Goal-directed action occurs 5. Drive reduced & need satisfied 6. Homeostasis: body's tendency to maintain steady state (equilibrium) LOOK AT PIC IN NOTES

Question 28

Theories of Motivation | Good and bad of drive theory

Answer 28

There are lots of motivation due to drives But not all motivations are due to deprivation - Secondary/learned drives motivate eg. Money - External incentives/ rewards motivate e.g. dessert when not hungry, attractive person

Question 29

Biological: Neo-Behaviourist Theory

Answer 29

Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory - Three important motivation systems that motivate our behaviour - Used to better understand personality characteristics and clinical problems - We all have these 3 systems and they work together to regulate behaviour - Situations can influence the relative activation of each system - We all have these systems but individuals may differ in the strength of each system

Question 30

1. BAS (Behavioural Approach system)

Answer 30

○ 'lets go for it' ○ Sensitive to appetitive stimuli ○ Associated with approach and anticipatory pleasure (hope) motivation ○ Personality: optimism, reward responsiveness and impulsiveness ○ Clinical: can help us understand addictive behaviours, high-risk impulsive behaviours and mania

Question 31

2. FFFS (fight-flight-freeze System)

Answer 31

○ 'get me out of here' ○ Sensitive to aversive stimuli ○ Associated with defensive avoidance (fear) and escape (panic) ○ Personality: fear-proneness, avoidance ○ Clinical conditions like phobia and panic

Question 32

3. BIS (behavioural inhibition system)

Answer 32

○ Sensitive to goal conflict e.g. approach-avoidance ○ Inhibits behaviour and seeks to resolve conflict ○ Associated with rumination, risk-assessment and anxiety

Question 33

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Answer 33

Sequence of needs: Most important are physiological Basic needs must be met before higher needs are activated Self-actualisation: motivation to develop to our fullest potential This model is more about the growth rather than reaching the 'self actualisation' stage LOOK AT PIC IN NOTES

Question 34

The Thematic Apperception Test

Answer 34

You're given an image and then 5-10 mins to write about what you think is in the picture. To measure motivation using this technique The writer's own motivations will be seen in their writing

Question 35

Psychosocial Motives

Answer 35

``` Henry Murray Motives are largely unconscious - Behaviour gives clues to motivation Need-recurrent concern for goal state Needs direct and energize Co-creator of thematic apperception test (TAT) and was primarily interested in 3 broad motivations 1. Need for achievement 2. Need for affiliation 3. Need for power ``` Scoring these stories were very time consuming so they came up with self-reporting to measure their achievement - Rate statements on a scale of agreement I set difficult goals for myself that i can achieve I enjoy relaxation only when it follows successful completion of work Work like a slave at everything I undertake until I am satisfied with the result I enjoy work as much as play

Question 36

1. Need for achievement

Answer 36

□ To do well, succeeding □ Unique accomplishment □ Intrinsic satisfaction of doing something better □ People often drew about performing a task and trying to achieve it □ These people are usually hard workers and excel at challenging tasks

Question 37

2. Need for affiliation

Answer 37

□ Concern with establishing, maintaining or restoring friendly relations □ Positive feelings about groups or persons □ Friendly, nurturing acts □ These people are good team players, friends, romantic partners

Question 38

3. Need for power

Answer 38

□ Having impact on others through strong, forceful actions □ Controlling, influencing, helping, impressing others □ E.g. Mandela had socio-political power and used his power to bring to light social issues to create more peace and equality. □ These people are usually effective leaders

Question 39

Problem with Self-reporting Measurement of needs

Answer 39

Needs cannot be measured by self-report - Pple are not aware of their needs - Self-reports do not correlate with TAT needs Self-report of needs reflect values or conscious motives - TAT need for achievement predicts long-term success (intrinsic) - Self-reported value for achievement predicts task effort and success when individuals are told they must do well (extrinsic) Needs can be traits or states - Situations can increase/decrease a person's need for achievement, power or affiliation

Question 40

Atkinson's Risk Taking Model of Achievement

Answer 40

Need for achievement people: tend to go for moderate difficulty tasks (peak of the blue graph) rather than easy or very hard tasks Fear of failure people: tend to avoid the moderate difficulty task and go for the easy or very hard task (so if they fail they can blame the difficulty of the task rather than their ability) LOOK AT PIC IN NOTES

Question 41

Self-determination Theory (Deci and Ryan)

Answer 41

Three basic organismic Needs 1. Competence- need for self-efficacy, mastery and achievement 2. Relatedness- need for warm relations with others, to belong, pain due to ostracism 3. Autonomy - need for independence and self-reliance ○ These needs are organismic: exist in every human (innate) ○ They are growth needs and not triggered by deficits (shortfall) LOOK AT PIC IN NOTES

Question 42

Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

Answer 42

Intrinsic motivation - Behaviour that fulfils organismic needs is enjoyable - People freely engage in behaviour that is intrinsically motivated Extrinsic motivation - Incentives (rewards, punishments, evaluations) - Individuals engage in non-enjoyable behaviour to receive incentive e.g. Money Rewarding an intrinsic motivated behaviour - Reduces future freely-chosen performance of the behaviour - Reduces quality of behaviours that require complex mental operations - Reduces creativity

Question 43

Intrinsic/Extrinsic motivation in young children

Answer 43

They have intrinsic motivation as they don't understand extrinsic motivation. They have motivation to be fed etc. Only become extrinsically motivated at around primary age due to things like homework etc.