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Motivation Flashcards

1
Q

What is motivation responsible for?

A

Activation and direction of behaviour

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2
Q

Output from which three domains regulates homeostasis?

A
  1. Endocrine
  2. Behavioural
  3. Autonomic
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3
Q

What are the two types of motivation?

A
  1. Incentive motivation - pull

2. Deficit reduction - push

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4
Q

What are the two phases of motivated behaviour?

A
  1. Appetitive

2. Consummatory

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5
Q

What is appetitive behaviour?

A

Animal performs voluntary behaviour to seek out goal

Flexible

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6
Q

What is consummatory behaviour?

A

Animal interacts with goal object

Inflexible

Species-specific

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7
Q

How does decerebration affect motivated behaviour?

A

Loss of appetitive, goal-oriented behaviours

Can still perform simple reflexive responses

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8
Q

What is decerebration?

A

Cutting above midbrain to remove influence of forebrain

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9
Q

What is responsible for coordination of appetitive and consummatory behaviours?

A

Neural activity in forebrain

Activity in hypothalamus and amygdala

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10
Q

Where is the hypothalamus located?

A

Below and rostral to the thalamus

Bordered rostrally by optic chiasm and caudally by mammillary bodies

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11
Q

What does the hypothalamus receive inputs from?

A
  1. Neural inputs from brainstem
  2. Neural inputs from forebrain
  3. Neurons responsive to hormones
  4. Neurons responsive to temperature and osmolarity
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12
Q

What is the role of somatic afferents to the hypothalamus from the brainstem?

A

Neuroendocrine reflexes

eg. milk ejection and stereotypic behaviour (sex)

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13
Q

What is the role of visceral afferents to the hypothalamus from the brainstem?

A

From nucleus of solitary tract and reticular formation

Convey gustatory and olfactory information

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14
Q

What is the role of neural inputs to the hypothalamus from the forebrain?

A

Afferents from the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex carry information about the motivational significance of external stimuli

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15
Q

What hormones is the hypothalamus sensitive to?

A

Steroid hormones

Many regions are rich in steroid hormone receptors

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16
Q

Where are cells sensitive to temperature found in the hypothalamus?

A

Preoptic area

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17
Q

Where are cells sensitive to osmolarity found in the hypothalamus?

A

OVLT

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18
Q

What are the features of hypothalamic capillaries?

A

Fenestrated capillaries

Open to entry of large molecules from blood into brain

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19
Q

How does the hypothalamus control endocrine output?

A
  1. Directly via neural signal to posterior pituitary

2. Indirectly via hormones secreted into portal plexus to anterior pituitary

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20
Q

Where is the pituitary portal plexus?

A

Median eminence

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21
Q

How does the hypothalamus control behavioural output?

A

Controls simple stereotyped behaviours via brainstem reflexes

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22
Q

Give some examples of stereotyped behaviours

A
  1. Shivering
  2. Gnawing
  3. Mounting
  4. Biting
  5. Drinking
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23
Q

What are the two coordinating centres for the autonomic system?

A
  1. Hypothalamus

2. Nucleus of the solitary tract

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24
Q

What does the NTS act on?

A
  1. Other brainstem nuclei

2. Neurons in spinal cord

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25
What brain structures do elaborate homeostatic adjustments involve?
Reciprocal connections between NST and higher structures such as amygdala and paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus
26
What behaviour does cooling of the preoptic area of the hypothalamus elicit?
Reflexive shivering
27
What behaviour does warming of the preoptic area of the hypothalamus elicit?
Panting
28
What is the result of lesions to the preoptic area of the hypothalamus?
Impaired thermoregulatory behaviour in response to changes in ambient temperature
29
Where is the feeding centre in the brain?
Lateral hypothalamus
30
What is aphagia?
Loss of eating Result of lesion to lateral hypothalamus
31
Where is the satiety centre in the brain?
Ventromedial nucleus of hypothalamus
32
What is the result of lesions to the ventromedial hypothalamus?
Over-eating Obesity
33
What is the medial forebrain bundle?
Passes through lateral hypothalamus Contains monoamine axons important for motivation
34
What is the role of the medial preoptic area?
Contains lots of steroid receptors for oestrogen/progesterone and testosterone Important for copulatory behaviour
35
What is the result of lesion to the medial preoptic area in male rats?
Loss of copulatory behaviour Cannot mount or intromit Still show intense excitement in the presence of a female in heat
36
What environmental cues initiate feeding?
1. Sensory stimulation due to food | 2. Conditioned stimuli associated with food
37
What physiological cues initiate feeding?
1. Declining levels of blood glucose and fatty acids
38
What are the short-term satiety mechanisms?
1. Feedback from smelling, tasting and swallowing food 2. Distension of stomach following ingestion 3. Humoral factors released from duodenum act on pyloric receptors, eg. CCK
39
What is cholecystokinin (CCK)?
Hormone released by duodenum Acts on pyloric receptors Signal transmitted to brainstem, via vagus, to reduce feeding
40
What are the long-term satiety mechanisms?
1. Signals arising from nutrient reservoirs, eg. leptin
41
What is leptin?
Peptide hormone secreted from adipose tissue 1. Increases metabolic rate and decreases food intake 2. Increases brain sensitivity to short-term satiety signals, eg. CCK
42
What are the two key neuropeptides involved in stimulating eating?
1. Melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) 2. Orexin In lateral hypothalamus
43
How are MCH and orexin activated?
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) secreting neurons in the arcuate nucleus
44
What is the effect of leptin on NPY neurons?
Inhibits NPY neuronal activity
45
What is the effect of ghrelin?
Activates NPY neurons directly
46
What is the effect of NPY release on the lateral hypothalamus?
1. Voracious eating
47
What is the effect of NPY release on the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus?
1. Decrease in metabolic rate | 2. Decrease in insulin
48
What is the result of decreased MCH neuronal activity?
1. Decreased feeding | 2. Increase in metabolic activity
49
What is the effect of lesion to the ventromedial hypothalamus in female rats?
1. Impaired sexual behaviours | 2. Loss of lordosis and solicitation
50
What causes loss of male sexual behaviour?
1. Lesion to medial preoptic area | 2. Castration
51
What causes loss of female sexual behaviour?
1. Lesion to ventromedial hypothalamus | 2. Ovariectomy
52
Where are androgen receptors concentrated in the hypothalamus?
Medial preoptic area
53
Where are oestrogen and progesterone receptors concentrated in the hypothalamus?
Ventromedial hypothalamus
54
What kind of motivational responses survive hypothalamic lesions?
Incentive motivational responses
55
Where is the amygdala?
Anterior temporal lobe Rostral to hippocampus In end wall of inferior horn of lateral ventricle Adjacent to olfactory cortex
56
What are the three basic subdivisions of the amygdala?
1. Cortico-medial division 2. Central nucleus 3. Baso-lateral amygdala
57
What are the two principle efferent pathways of the amygdala?
1. Ventral amygdalofugal pathway | 2. Stria terminalis
58
What is the ventral amygdalofugal pathway?
Diffuse pathway Courses directly across temporal stem
59
What is the stria terminalis?
Fibre bundle running around lateral ventricle in groove between caudate tail and thalamus
60
What is the cortico-medial division of the amygdala?
1. Receives olfactory information | 2. Route via which pheromones come to elicit social and sexual behaviour
61
What are pheromones?
Secretions from urogenital tract Important cues in non-human animals
62
What is the sexual nucleus of the amygdala?
Controls autonomic nervous system, endocrine system and simple motor reflexes Afferents from solitary tract Efferents to hypothalamus and brainstem
63
What is the basolateral amygdala?
Receives input from higher order sensory regions Projects to regions involved in planning and action in prefrontal cortex and ventral striatum Responds to conditioned stimuli
64
What is the effect of amygdala lesions on male sexual behaviour?
Loss of appetitive behaviour Maintained copulatory behaviour Can still mount and intromit but will no longer press lever to obtain light associated with female reward
65
What is the effect of steroid hormones on the amygdala?
Promote appetitive behaviours
66
What is the role of the amygdala in feeding?
Appetitive behaviour elicited by food cues
67
How does the amygdala control voluntary action?
1. Major output to ventral striatum | 2. Ventral striatum receives specific dopaminergic input from A10 neurons in ventral tegmental area
68
Where is the ventral tegmental area?
Midbrain Adjacent to substantia nigra (A9)
69
What is the effect of lesions of dopamine projections with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)
1. Profound depletions of dopamine in striatum 2. Aphagia 3. Adipsia 4. Akinesia
70
What is the nigrostriatal DA system?
Dopamine neurons in substantia nigra that project to the dorsal striatum
71
What is the role of the nigrostriatal DA system?
1. Activation of motor responses | 2. Sensory-motor integration
72
What kind of motivational behaviour is the dorsal striatum involved in?
Consummatory behaviour
73
What kind of motivational behaviour is the ventral striatum involved in?
Appetitive behaviour Incentive motivation
74
What causes dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens?
Presence of primary rewards Stimuli associated with primary rewards
75
What are some examples of appetitive behaviours in anticipation of primary reward?
1. Investigative behaviour | 2. Locomotor activity
76
How might hunger alter incentive motivational processes?
Orexin neurons activated in the hungry state send projections to the nucleus accumbens
77
What is the mesolimbic pathway?
Dopamine projections to ventral striatum
78
What is the brainstem reticular core continuous with?
Intermediate grey of spinal cord caudally Lateral hypothalamus and subthalamic regions rostrally
79
Where is the reticular core located?
Medially in the brainstem
80
What is the reticular core compose of?
Loosely aggregated cells of different types and sizes intermingled with fibres of different orientations
81
What are the two main categories of function of the reticular formation?
1. Integration of basic stereotyped patterns of responding | 2. Regulation of level of activity of brain
82
What are some basic, stereotyped patterns of responding?
Pattern generation for: 1. Posture and locomotion 2. Swallowing 3. Chewing 4. Vomiting 5. Sneezing Regulation of respiratory cycle and cardiovascular control
83
What is the ascending activating system?
Subserves sleep and wakefulness Optimises processing of sensory stimuli Attention
84
What is in the isodendritic core?
1. Reticular neurons 2. Cholinergic neurons of basal forebrain 3. Histaminergic neurons of posterior hypothalamus
85
Where do reticular formation neurons project to?
1. Cortex via medial forebrain bundle | 2. Intralaminar nuclei of thalamus
86
Where do the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus project?
1. Cortex | 2. Striatum
87
What are the populations of neurons of the reticular formation?
1. Dopamine 2. Noradrenaline 3. Serotonin 4. Acetylcholine
88
What does noradrenaline play a role in?
Attention and orienting
89
What is the nucleus that releases noradrenaline?
Locus coeruleus
90
What is the effect of activation of the locus coeruleus?
Increase in signal-to-noise ratio Enhances inhibitory effect of meaningless stimulus Increases excitatory effect of meaningful stimulus on hippocampal neurons
91
When are locus coeruleus neurons maximally activated?
Times of stress NA released in cortical terminal fields
92
What are the serotonin systems involved in?
Behavioural inhibition, particularly in aversive situations
93
What conditions are linked to reduced forebrain 5HT?
1. OCD | 2. Impulsive behaviour
94
What disorders are treated with drugs that increase 5HT levels?
1. Anxiety | 2. Depression
95
What is the function of forebrain cholinergic neurons?
Learning and memory
96
What is the result of degeneration of forebrain cholinergic neurons?
Alzheimer's disease
97
How is sleep defined?
Normal suspension of consciousness Specific pattern of electrical brain activity
98
What is the circadian rhythm?
Daily cycle that patterns wakefulness and sleep in accordance with light levels Generated by suprachiasmatic nucleus of hypothalamus
99
How does EEG measure brain activity?
Measures electrical activity through surface scalp electrodes Represents summed activity of many cortical cells
100
What is the form of most of the activity contributing to the EEG?
Slow membrane potentials EPSPs and IPSPs
101
What are the two characteristic EEG patterns during the day?
1. Beta activity | 2. Alpha activity
102
What is beta activity?
High frequency (15-60Hz) Low amplitude When eyes are open Signals active cortex Also in REM sleep
103
What is alpha activity?
Lower frequency (8-13Hz) Quiet resting states
104
What are the five stages of sleep?
Stages 1-4 and REM
105
What is stage 1 sleep?
Drowsy period Theta waves
106
What are theta waves?
Stage 1 sleep Decreasing frequency (4-8Hz) Increasing amplitude
107
What is stage 2 sleep?
Light sleep Further decreases in frequency Intermittent high frequency spike clusters or spindles
108
What stage sleep is associated with K complex?
Stage 2
109
What is stage 3 sleep?
Moderate to deep sleep Delta rhythms
110
What stage sleep is associated with delta rhythms?
Stage 3 and 4
111
What is stage 4 sleep?
Deepest sleep Delta waves
112
What are delta waves?
Lowest frequency Highest amplitude
113
What is REM sleep?
Rapid eye movement sleep EEG looks like awake state Beta rhythms
114
What physiological changes are seen in non-REM sleep?
Decreases in: 1. Muscle tone 2. Heart rate 3. Respiratory rate 4. Blood pressure 5. Metabolic rate
115
What physiological changes are seen in REM sleep?
Increases in: 1. Heart rate 2. Blood pressure 3. Metabolic rate 4. Rapid rolling eye movements 5. Paralysis of long muscles
116
Which brain structures are more active during REM sleep than the awake state?
1. Extrastriate cortex | 2. Certain limbic structures
117
Which brain structures are less active during REM sleep than the awake state?
1. Prefrontal cortex | 2. Primary visual cortex
118
What are the functions of sleep?
1. Restoration of mental and bodily functions 2. Brain development in children 3. Memory consolidation
119
What are the two major contributors to control of the sleep-wake cycle?
1. Thalamus | 2. Brainstem modulatory neurotransmitter systems
120
Which cholinergic neurons lead to wakefulness?
Pedunculopontine neurons in brainstem
121
What kind of stimulation leads to slow wave sleep?
Low frequency stimulation of thalamus
122
What underlies the transition from the non-REM state to the waking state?
Shift from intrinsic burst-firing to single-spike in cells of thalamus and cortex due to ACh and NA
123
How does the thalamus synchronise with the cortex?
Intrinsic burst firing or intrinsic oscillatory mode Disconnects cortex from outside world
124
When is cortex disconnection maximal?
Delta wave sleep
125
How does neurotransmitter activity change during non-REM sleep?
Activity of ACh, NA and 5HT decreases
126
How does neurotransmitter activity change during REM sleep?
5HT and NA decrease activity even further than in non-REM sleep Pedunculopontine cholinergic neurons become active 5HT and NA increase again just before offset of REM
127
What is the FLIP-FLOP model for sleep/wakefulness?
Mutual inhibition between sleep and waking states
128
Which area of the brain is important for switching between sleep and wakefulness?
Ventrolateral preoptic area of hypothalamus Sleep-promoting region
129
What does the VLPA reciprocally inhibit?
Ascending activating system
130
What causes insomnia in the short-term?
1. Stress 2. Caffeine 3. Jet-lag
131
What causes serious insomnia?
Psychiatric disorders
132
What is narcolepsy?
Frequent REM attacks during the day Possible cataplexy
133
What is cataplexy?
Temporary loss of muscle control
134
What may cause narcolepsy in dogs?
Mutation in orexin receptor 2 gene Absence of receptor leads to more frequent switching between waking and sleep
135
What is another name for orexins?
Hypocretins
136
When are orexin neurons most active?
Wakefulness Especially during locomotor exploration
137
Where do orexin neurons project to?
Excitatory projections to reticular modulatory systems
138
What is the role of orexin neurons?
Increase activity in arousal pathways Tip balance of flip-flop switch towards waking state
139
What is the principle clock in humans?
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
140
Where is the suprachiasmatic nucleus?
Anterior hypothalamus Lies above optic chiasm on each side of third ventricle
141
How does the SCN receives its light information?
Directly from the retina via retinohypothalamic tract
142
What is melanopsin?
Visual pigment in a subset of retinal ganglion cells Particularly sensitive to blue wavelength light These ganglions send their axons to SCN
143
What structures does the SCN connect to?
1. Dorsomedial nucleus 2. Midline thalamus 3. Bed nucleus of stria terminalis
144
How does the SCN control circadian rhythmicity?
Regulation of VLPA via DMN
145
What conditions are associated with sleep disorders?
1. Depression 2. Anxiety 3. Huntington's 4. Alzheimer's

NHB (17 decks)

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