MOTIVATING Flashcards
is the willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.
Motivation
describes forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.
Motivation
Most discussion of motivation begins with the concept of _________ the unfulfilled physiological or psychological desires of an individual.
individual needs
“An inner state that energizes, activates, or moves, and that directs or channels behavior
toward goals.” Berelson & Steiner
Motive
*“The willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.” – Robbins
*“3 measures of resulting behavior: direction, strength, and persistence” - Campbell
Motivation
To have an effective technical organization, one needs to understand the ___________ which is an important part of leadership.
nature of motivation
Campbell et al. define motivation in terms of three measures of the resulting behavior:
a. The direction of an individual’s behavior (measured by the choice made when several alternatives are available)
b. The strength of that behavior once a choice is made
c. The persistence of that behavior
____________ postulated two contrasting sets of assumptions about the average worker, calling them _____________.
Douglas McGregor
Theory X and Theory Y
places exclusive reliance upon external control of human behavior
Theory X
relies heavily on self-control and self-direction.
Theory Y
It is worth noting that this difference is the difference between treating people as _______ and treating them as __________.
children
mature adults
- the average person by nature indolent - he works as little as possible
- He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers to be led.
- He is inherently self-centered, indifferent to organizational needs.
- He is by nature resistant to change.
- He is gullible, not very bright, the ready dupe of the charlatan and the demagogue.
Theory X: assumption
Thus in theory X, the management needs to:
1. Management is responsible for organizing the elements of ________________________ in the interest of economic needs.
2. ______________ . This is a process of directing their efforts, motivating them, controlling their actions, modifying their behaviors to fit the needs of the organization.
3. Without this active intervention by management, people would be ___________ to organization needs. They must therefore be _______________ - their activities must be directed.
productive enterprise-money, materials, equipment, people
With respect to people
passive-even resistant
persuaded, rewarded, punished, controlled
- Management is responsible for organizing the elements or productive enterprise - money, materials equipment, people - in the interest of economic ends
- People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs. They have become so as a result of experience in organization.
- The motivation, the potential for development, the capacity for assuming responsibility, the readiness to direct behavior toward organization goals are all present in people. Management does not have to put them there. It is the responsibility of management to make it possible for people to recognize and develop these human characteristics for themselves.
- The essential task of management is to arrange organizational conditions and methods of operation so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives.
Theory Y: assumption
places exclusive reliance upon external control of human behavior
Theory X
relies heavily on self-control and self-direction.
Theory Y
are based on human needs and people’s (often unconscious) efforts to satisfy them.
Content Theories
Content Theories
A. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
B. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
C. McClelland’s Trio of Needs
human needs arrange themselves in hierarchies of prepotency. The appearance of one need usually rest on the prior satisfaction of another.
Concept of Abraham H. Maslow
is a motivational theory in psychology that argues that while people aim to meet basic needs, they seek to meet successively higher need in a form of a pyramid.
often represented as a pyramid with five levels of needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
In a 1943 paper called A Theory of Human Motivation, Maslow presented the idea that ____________ are directed toward goal attainment.
human actions
The four levels (lower-order needs) are considered
physiological needs
the top level of the pyramid is considered
growth needs
_____________ must be satisfied before higher-order needs can influence behavior.
lower level needs
People concentrate on these needs before continuing up the hierarchy to satisfy higher-order needs. In the workplace these include basic wages or salary, and reasonable working conditions.
Physiological needs
Next in the hierarchy, workers need job security, safe working conditions, protection against threats, and a predictable work environment. Also included at this level are the job benefits—medical, unemployment, and disability insurance—as well as retirement plans.
Security/Safety needs
After the lower levels of the hierarchy, physiological and security, have been met, _____________ become a motivator for the worker. In the workplace these include compatible coworkers and a pleasant supervisor. These needs may be met outside the workplace where there is a need for interaction with others and being part of a group.
Affiliation (Belongingness) needs
are met by self-respect or self-esteem, and the esteem of others. Praise, recognition, and promotion within the company satisfy these needs. In some situations this includes the location of a person’s office.
Esteem needs
The highest level is the desire to become everything one is capable of becoming (to become actualized in what one is potentially). This need may be addressed through creative or challenging work or special assignments. Leaving a company and going into business for yourself is a form of this highest level.
Self-actualization needs
studied the factors affecting job attitudes
Frederick Herzberg
the factors affecting job attitudes and found that they could be divided into two groups:
- Motivator Factors
- Hygiene Factors
those that provided motivation when they are present
Motivator Factors
led to job dissatisfaction when they did not meet expectations.
Hygiene Factors
Herzberg developed the methodology of ____________ to increase the content of motivators in a job.
job enrichment
Examples of ______________ include reducing the number and frequency of controls, making the worker responsible for checking his or her own work, establishing a direct relationship between the worker and the customer or user of that work (whether internal or external), and in other ways, increasing authority and autonomy.
job-enrichment actions
Myers believes that people may be categorized as either ______________, who respond well to job enrichment, or ______________, who “are motivated primarily by the nature of their environment and tend to avoid motivational opportunities…are chronically preoccupied and dissatisfied with maintenance [hygiene] factors surrounding their job…[and] realize little satisfaction from accomplishment and express cynicism toward the positive values of work and life in general.”
motivation seekers
maintenance seekers
In an extended study at Texas Instruments, Myers found that engineers, manufacturing supervisors, hourly male technicians, and especially scientists tended to be ____________, whereas female assemblers tended to be ____________.
motivation seekers
maintenance seekers
McClelland’s Trio of Needs:
- Need for achievement
- Need for power
- Need for affiliation
the drive or desire to excel, to accomplish something better than has been done in the past. (entrepreneurs)
Need for achievement
the desire to control one’s environment, including resources and people.
(managers)
Need for power
the need for human companionship and acceptance.
(coordinators, integrators, counselors, and sales)
Need for affiliation
assume that behavioral choices are made more rationally, based on the expected outcomes.
Process Theories
Process Theories:
A. Equity Theory
B. Expectancy Theory
C. Porter-Lawler Extension
D. Behavior Modification
Developed by _____________, this theory is based on the simple belief that people want to be treated fairly relative to the treatment of others.
Equity Theory
J. Stacey Adams
are a person’s contribution to the organization in terms of education, experience, ability, effort, and loyalty.
Inputs
are the obvious rewards of pay and promotion and the more subtle ones of recognition and social relationships.
Outcomes
A person who feels under rewarded compared with someone else may:
(1) put forth less effort,
(2) press for a higher salary (or a bigger office or a reserved parking place),
(3) distort the perceived ratio by rationalizing, or
(4) leave the situation (quit or transfer).
Formulated in _____ by _______, ____________ relates the effort a person puts forth to the expectation of achieving some desired goal.
1964
Victor Vroom
expectancy theory
two expectancies in expectancy theory:
Effort-to-performance expectancy
Performance-to-outcome expectancy
is a person’s perception of the probability that his or her effort will lead to high performance, usually in meeting an organizationally desired goal.
Effort-to-performance expectancy
The ability to achieve ____________ (first-order outcomes in the model) is considered a function of individual ability and the environment (tools, resources, and opportunity), in addition to the effort applied.
high performance
also known as instrumentality, is the person’s perception that attaining the performance just described will lead to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards (second-order outcomes).
Performance-to-outcome expectancy
are intangibles such as a feeling of accomplishment or sense of achievement;
Intrinsic rewards
are tangible results such as pay or promotion.
extrinsic awards
Both the effort -to-performance and the performance-to-outcome expectancy may be rated on a scale from _________________.
0.0 (no relationship) to 1.0 (certainty)
measures the strength of a person’s desire for these outcomes (which may be positive or negative) and is related to the individual needs we have already considered.
Valence
According to expectancy theory, motivation can be calculated as the product of the values assigned to these three factors:
- Effort to performance expectancy
- Performance to outcome expectancy
- Valence of outcomes
________________ proposed an extension of the expectancy model involving employee satisfaction.
Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler
Personal effort, abilities and traits, and role perceptions (the employee’s belief that certain tasks need to be done to do his or her job effectively) determine _____________.
performance
Performance, in turn, leads to ________________, as in the expectancy model.
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards
The perceived ____________ of these rewards determines the satisfaction the employee gains from the work.
equity (fairness)
This ____________ colors the value placed on the rewards anticipated for future cycles of work, and therefore it influences future effort.
satisfaction
This theory, also known as the reinforcement theory or operant conditioning, has its foundations in the work of ___________.
Behavior Modification
B. F. Skinner
________ is followed by an event (reinforcement) that affects the probability that the behavior is repeated.
Behavior
Four major types of reinforcement are available to the manager:
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
increases the probability that desired behavior will be repeated by providing a reward (praise, recognition, raise, promotion, or other).
Positive reinforcement
or avoidance, seeks to increase the probability that desired behavior will be repeated by letting the employee escape from undesired consequences.
Negative reinforcement
seeks to decrease the probability that undesired behavior will be repeated by imposing penalties (undesired consequences) such as reprimands, discipline, or fines.
often leads to resentment and even poorer performance, managers try to use it as a last resort.
Punishment
seeks to decrease the probability that undesired behavior will be repeated by ignoring it and withholding positive reinforcement.
Extinction
____________ is the application of motivational theories to the structure of work for improving productivity and satisfaction. The number of tasks and those tasks one has on a job affect the ____________ of workers. Several techniques have been developed to change these factors.
Job design
motivational level
is a job design whose purpose is to improve task efficiency by reducing the number of tasks a single person must perform.
reduces the number of tasks by specialization, it often results in boredom and reduced motivation.
Job simplification
systematically moves employees from one job to another to provide them with variety and stimulation.
increases the number of tasks over time and can be motivational if the jobs are challenging.
Job rotation
combines a series of tasks into one new, broader job to give employees variety and challenge.
Job enlargement
incorporates achievement, recognition, and other high-level motivators into the work.
adds more responsibility to the job and thereby has more motivational potential.
Job enrichment
_________ developed the ___________, which is a model of job design that comprises core job dimensions, critical psychological states, and employee growth-need strength.
Hackman and Oldham
job characteristics model
involves the changing of jobs to increase the quality of work life and the productivity of workers.
Work redesign
are skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.
These dimensions produce meaningful work, a feeling of responsibility, and knowledge of results. These lead to positive personal and work outcomes. The effectiveness of each of these programs depends on the types of perceived needs that the workers have.
Core job dimensions
The newest trend in motivation is __________, which is the delegation of power and authority to subordinates. This releases motivation within employees.
empowerment
______________ must receive information about company performance, have knowledge and skills to contribute to company goals, have power to make substantive decisions, and be rewarded based on performance.
Empowered employees
