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Grade 12 Biology > Molecular Genetics 2nd Half > Flashcards

Molecular Genetics 2nd Half Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the central dogma

A

It is the main idea of how you go from DNA to Protein

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2
Q

What is transcription

A

DNA is used as a template for the synthesis of mRNA occurring in the nucleus

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3
Q

What is efficient about converting to mRNA

A

Numerous copies can be made in a very short period of time

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4
Q

What is translation

A

The messenger RNA is decoded by transfer RNA by the help of ribosomes and specific amino acids are assembled into polypeptide chains (Cytoplasm)

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5
Q

What are the three stages of both Transcription and Translation

A
  1. Initiation
  2. Elongation
  3. Termination
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6
Q

Who developed rapid DNA sequencing

A

Frederick Sanger in 1977

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7
Q

What was the first mapped genetic disease

A

Huntington’s

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8
Q

What chromosome does huntington’s affect

A

Chromosome 4

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9
Q

Who created PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

A

Kary Mullis

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10
Q

What was the human genome project

A

Develop technology to map and sequence human and other genomes

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11
Q

What was the goal of the private company Celera Genomics

A

Trying to privatize the human genome

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12
Q

What is the goal of biotechnology tools and techniques

A

To manipulate DNA

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13
Q

What is recombinant DNA

A

A DNA fragment composed of sequences from at least 2 different sources

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14
Q

What are Restriction enzymes

A

Act as molecular scissors, cut DNA at specific base-pair sequences, and every restriction enzyme has a unique recognition site

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15
Q

How big are recognition sites on restriction enzymes

A

4-8 base pairs

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16
Q

What is a characteristic of recognition sites

A

They are palindromic

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17
Q

How are blunt cutters different from sticky end cutters

A

Blunt ends do not want to bind whereas sticky ends are more useful and can easily reform the H-Bonds required between complementary ends

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18
Q

Where do restriction enzymes come from

A

They come from bacteria which use the enzymes to defend against viruses (bacteriophages)

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19
Q

What prevents the bacterial DNA from being cut as well

A

Methylation

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20
Q

What is methylation

A

Methyl groups are added to nucleotides in the recognition site by methylase enzyme

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21
Q

After methylation, what is the restriction enzyme prevented from doing

A

Cleaving bacterial DNA

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22
Q

In recombinant DNA, why do sticky ends not fully seal the gaps

A

The phosphodiester bonds of the backbone must still be repaired by DNA ligase

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23
Q

What are plasmids

A

Small circular pieces of DNA that naturally occur in the bacterial cytoplasm

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24
Q

How bog are plasmids

A

Range in size from 2000 to 100 000 base pairs long

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25
Q

In what process are plasmids exchanged between bacteria

A

During conjugation via the sex pilus

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26
Q

What do plasmids often contain

A

Antibiotic resistance genes

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27
Q

How are plasmids useful to molecular biologists

A

A gene of interest can be inserted into a plasmid then this recombinant plasmid can be inserted into a bacteria cell which will then produce the protein from this gene

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28
Q

What is Gel electrophoresis

A

A technique to separate fragments of DNA by size, once the DNA has been digested by restriction enzymes

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29
Q

Why is DNA negatively charged

A

Phosphate groups present

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30
Q

What electrode will the DNA run towards

A

The positive electrode as opposites attract

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31
Q

What end are the wells located on

A

The negative electrode

32
Q

What is the purpose of the wells

A

To load the DNA letting it run into the gel

33
Q

More migration means what

A

smaller DNA fragments

34
Q

What is the agarose gel like

A

Acts like a sieve or a maze

35
Q

What is usually located in the first well

A

A molecular weight marker with pre determined benchmark fragments to compare other DNA to

36
Q

What do same length bands mean when looking at results for forensics

A

DNA is matching

37
Q

What is diabetes Mellitus

A

A disease in which the blood glucose level is too high due to insufficient production or activity of insulin

38
Q

What is type 1 diabetes

A

Inability to produce insulin

39
Q

What is type 2 diabetes

A

Low insulin or an inability to use insulin

40
Q

Who isolated insulin

A

Dr Frederick Banting and Dr Charles Best at U of T

41
Q

Who founded a method to determine blood sugar by dip test urinalysis

A

Helen Free

42
Q

What is a recognition site

A

A sequence of bases on DNA strands that restriction enzymes bind to

43
Q

What is a competent cell

A

A cell that is able to take up foreign DNA from its sorroundings

44
Q

What is a vector

A

A DNA molecule that is used as a vehicle to transfer foreign genetic material into a cell

45
Q

What is a copy number

A

The number of plasmids of a specific type within a cell

46
Q

What is a host cell

A

A cell that has taken up foreign plasmid or virus and has used its machinery to express the foreign DNA

47
Q

What is a cloned gene

A

An identical target of an original target gene that can be introduced by adding it to the host cell and having it copied

48
Q

What is a restriction map

A

A diagram that shows restriction enzyme recognition sites and the distances, measured in base pairs, between the sites

49
Q

What is transformation

A

The successful introduction of DNA from another source

50
Q

What is hybridization used for

A

Identify the cells that contain the introduced plasmids with the desired gene

51
Q

What is a hybridization probe

A

A fragment of DNA that is used to detect the presence of complementary nucleotide sequences

52
Q

What did Cohen and Boyer do

A

Developed the first recombinant plasmid

53
Q

Describe Cohen and Boyer’s experiment

A

Restriction enzyme cleaves amphibian DNA on either side of target gene, the same enzyme then cleaves the double helix of bacterial plasmid DNA, the complementary sticky ends form base pairs with each other and then sealed up with DNA Ligase, the result is a bacterial plasmid with an amphibian gene

54
Q

What are the four steps to cloning a gene into a plasmid

A

Cutting the gene of interest, ligate gene into plasmid making a recombinant plasmid, transform bacteria with recombinant plasmid, and selection to isolate bacterial cells that actually take up recombinant plasmid DNA

55
Q

What is PCR used for

A

A technique used to create many copies of a certain DNA segment or to amplify DNA

56
Q

What is the machine behind PCR

A

thermocycler

57
Q

What principle is PCR based off of

A

enzymatic replication of DNA

58
Q

What enzyme is involved with PCR

A

Taq DNA Polymerase

59
Q

Where can Taq DNA polymerase be found

A

Found in thermophilic bacteria, hot springs

60
Q

What are the primers used in PCR

A

DNA primers because RNA primers are too easily degraded

61
Q

What are the three steps of PCR

A

Denaturation, Annealing, and DNA synthesis

62
Q

What happens in denaturation

A

reaction mixture heated to 94 degrees breaking hydrogen bonds and converting to single stranded DNA, these strands now act like a template for the new strands of DNA

63
Q

What happens in Annealing

A

The temperature is lowered to 50-65 degrees, the primers bind to their complementary sequences/anneal, primers are single stranded and 20-30 base pairs in length, serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis, they run in opposite directions so there is a forward primer and a reverse primer

64
Q

What happens in DNA synthesis

A

temperature is raised to 72 degrees, the bases area added to the 3’ end of the primer by Taw DNA polymerase elongating the DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction

65
Q

How many times are the three steps of PCR repeated to obtain a million copies

A

repeated approximately 20 times, each cycle doubles the amount of target DNA

66
Q

What are the three post transcriptional modifications

A

5” Cap, Poly-A Tail at 3’ End, and Removal of Introns/Joining of exons

67
Q

What does the 5’ Cap do

A

protects mRNA from digestion from nucleases in the cytoplasm and binds to ribosomes to initiate translation

68
Q

What does the Poly-A Tail do

A

Approximately 200-300 adenine nucleotide bases added to 3’ end by poly-A polymerase

69
Q

What are exons

A

Expressed regions, code for part of a protein

70
Q

What is an intron

A

interspersed among exons, do not code for protein so they must be removed

71
Q

What removes introns and joins exons

A

Spliceosomes remove the introns which are degraded in the nucleus and join exons by phosphodiester bonds

72
Q

Why is proofreading not necessary in mRNA

A

errors are less detrimental because hundreds of mRNA are made from the same gene, there will be enough correct copies to produce protein required

73
Q

Describe Transcription in prokaryotes

A

No nuclear membrane, transcription and translation are coupled and occur together, no introns in genes of prokaryotes

74
Q

explain the outcome of how a single gene can code for a variety of proteins

A

human genome consists of 30-35000 genes however the body can produce well over 100 000 different proteins via ALTERNATIVE SPLICING PATTERNS

75
Q

In Translation, what is the start codon and what are the 3 stop codons

A

AUG = Start Codon
UAA, UAG, UGA = 3 Stop Codons

Grade 12 Biology (7 decks)

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