Molecular Biology - 2.3 Carbohydrates and Lipids Flashcards
Basic facts of carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen ((CH2O)n) and are used to store energy
Three groups of carbohydrates:
- monosaccharides
- disaccharides
- polysaccharides
Monosaccharides (one sugar)
Understanding:
Monosaccharides monomers are linked together by condensation reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharides polymers
Main function = ENERGY SOURCE
Are monomers (single sugar units) also known as reducing sugars and are small enough to pass across the cell membrane These monosaccharides may be linked together via condensation reactions
Eg
- Glucose (C6H12O6) - made in plants by photosynthesis and used in respiration (in the form D & L Glucose - L is not used by living things)
- Fructose (C6H12O6) - made by plants found in fruits and honey
- Galacatose (C6H12O6) - produced from the breakdown of lactose
- Ribose (C5H10O5) - component of RNA nucleic acid
- MUST LEARN: formula and structure of Glucose and Ribose
Two monosaccharide monomers may be joined via a glycosidic linkage to form a disaccharide
Many monosaccharide monomers may be joined via glycosidic linkages to form polysaccharides
D and L glucose - Information
Glucose is made in the form D & L Glucose:
- L is not used by living things (not metabolised by them)
- D glucose comes in 2 forms: alpha and beta
- Alpha D glucose = starch and glycogen polymers
- Beta D glucose = cellulose polymer
DIFFERENCE = placement of the hydroxide (on beta it moves so it is closer to the O)
Disaccharides (2 sugars)
- they are produced by combining monosaccharides
- Disaccharides (two sugar units) are small enough to be soluble in water and commonly function as a TRANSPORT FORM
- Sucrose (glucose and frutose)
Table sugar - it is formed by a condensation reaction in plants - Lactose (galactose and glucose)
Milk sugar - milk lactose is broken down by the enzyme lactase (in most mammals the production of lactase gradually decreases with maturity - not all have the gene for lifelong lactase production) - Maltose (glucose and glucose)
Malt sugar - it is the disaccharide produced when the amylase enzyme breaks down the starch polymer. It can be found in germinating seeds
Condensation reactions
- Joining together monosaccharides
Glucose units are joined by removing a molecule of water to form the glycosidic bond
If 2 glucose molecules are joined a disaccharide is formed. If more, then a polysaccharide is formed
Equation:
glucose + glucose -> disaccharide + water
Hydrolysis reactions
When a disaccharide is split a water molecule provides the hydrogen and hydroxyl group to break the glycosidic bond
Equation:
Disaccharide + water -> monosaccharide + monosaccharide
Hydrolysis reactions
When a disaccharide is split a water molecule provides the hydrogen and hydroxyl group to break the glycosidic bond
Equation:
Disaccharide + water -> monosaccharide + monosaccharide
Disaccharide examples
- sucrose
- lactose
- maltose
Polysaccharides (many sugars)
Application:
Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and glycogen in humans
Polysaccharides are carbohydrate polymers comprised of many (hundreds to thousands) monosaccharide monomers. The type of polymer formed depends on the monosaccharide subunits involved and the bonding arrangement between them
Polysaccharides (many sugar units) may be used for energy storage or cell structure, and also play a role in cell recognition
Main function = STORAGE FORM
Skill:
Use of molecular visualisation software to compare cellulose, starch and glycogen
Polysaccharides - STARCH
Long branched (amylopectin) and unbranched (amylose) chains of alpha D glucose
(the way that plants store their carbohydrates - more vertebrates have digestive enzymes that can break starch down)
Polysaccharides - GLYCOGEN
Long branched chains of alpha D glucose + (energy storage = animals)
(the way that animals store glucose in muscles and liver - glycogen is insoluble so large amounts can be stored)
Polysaccharides - CELLULOSE
Unbranched polymer of beta D glucose + (cell wall structure = plants)
(makes up the walls of plants - humans and most vertebrates are unable to digest cellulose due to the enzymes need to breakdown the beta acetyl linkages that are not found in vertebrates - some bacteria contain these enzymes and are therefore able to breakdown cellulose)
Amylose vs Amylopectin (starch)
Amylose
- helical chains (alpha glucose)
- energy storage (plants)
Amylopectin
- Branched chains (alpha glucose)
- energy storage (plants)
- has branches approx. every 20 subunits - the branch points have C1-C6 links, non-branched areas have C1-C4 links
Lipids
(you must be able to recognise them!!
They are: carbon compounds made by living organisms that are mostly or entirely hydrophobic
- fats and waxes are solid at room temp + oil is liquid at room temp
- They are relatively insoluble in water
- Lipids are important energy storage compounds (fats have the greatest energy per gran of all food types - excess proteins and carbohydrates can be converted to fats for storage)
Main 3 lipid types!!!:
- triglycerides
- phospholipids
- steroids
Triglycerides (lipids)
Most common lipid - made of 3 fatty acids joined to a glycerol
Understanding:
Triglycerides are formed by condensation from three fatty acids (2 saturated and 1 unsaturated) and one glycerol
Saturated - all of the covalent bonds are single
Unsaturated - there is one or more double covalent bonds (unsaturated fats tend to be from plants)
Triglycerides are formed when condensation reactions occur between one glycerol and three fatty acids
- The hydroxyl groups of glycerol combine with the carboxyl groups of the fatty acids to form an ester linkage
- This condensation reaction results in the formation of three molecules of water
Fatty acids
Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains that are found in certain types of lipids (triglycerides & phospholipids)
Understanding:
Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polysaturated
Saturated - all of the covalent bonds are single
Unsaturated - there is one or more double covalent bonds (unsaturated fats tend to be from plants)
mono-saturated - only one double bond
poly-saturated - two or more double bonds
Fatty acids may differ in the length of the hydrocarbon chain (typically 4 – 24 carbons)
(refer to omega 3 vs omega 6 diagrams + info. to see the differences in the position of the double bond.)
Cis + trans unsaturated fatty acids
Cis:
cis unsaturated fatty acids hydrogen atoms are bound to the same side of the double bond
(eg. vegetable oils - altered to become: margarine etc)
The hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon double bond are on the same side
Trans:
trans unsaturated fats are bonded to opposite sides (are uncommon in nature but are commonly produced industrially, commonly associated with risk of coronary heart disease)
The hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon double bond are on different sides
Trans fatty acids do not commonly occur in nature and are typically produced by an industrial process called hydrogenation
Trans fatty acids are generally linear in structure (despite being unsaturated) and are usually solid at room temperature
Phospholipids (lipids)
- makes up cell membranes
They are a: important structural component in cell membranes - they are similar to triglycerides but have only 2 fatty acids linked to glycerol with a phosphate group rather than the 3rd fatty acid
Steroids (lipids)
All have a similar structure of 17 carbon atoms in 4 rings
Eg.
- Cholesterol
- Testosterone
- Cortisol
- Vitamin D2
Notes: one of the rings in vitamin D is broken
Energy storage
Application = Lipids are more suitable for long-term energy storage in humans than carbohydrates
Lipids and carbohydrates are used by living organisms as stores of energy:
1g of glycogen is associated with 2g of water: 100g carbs = 1760 kJ, 100g proteins = 1510 kJ, 100g lipid = 4000kJ
==> energy per gram of lipids is double the amount released from a gram of carbohydrates (lipids can be stored and utilised without water so are 6x MORE EFFICIENT)
Body Mass Index (BMI)
Skill:
Determination of BMI by calculation or use of nomogram
it is the measure of relative size based on the mass (kg) and height (m).
BMI is best proxy for body fat percentage - used as a diagnostic tool (but has many limitations due to age, gender, body shape, muscle mass, etc)
Bod Mass Index = Weight (kg) / Height^2 (m) Final units = kg/m^2
underweight - 18.5 and under
normal weight - 18.5-24.9
overweight - 25-29
obese - 30+
Health claims
Application:
Scientific evidence for health risks of trans fats and saturated fatty acids
- Increase LDL (low density lipoprotein) levels
- raising blood cholesterol
The mix of fats in the diet influences the level of cholesterol in the bloodstream
Saturated fats and trans fats raise blood cholesterol levels, while (cis) unsaturated fats lower blood cholesterol levels
Application:
Evaluation of evidence and the methods used to obtains the evidence for health claims made about lipids
- fatty deposits in discussed arteries contain high concentration of trans fats
proteins
Improtance:
- Structure - forming the structural components eg. keratin
- Regulatory - Regulating cellular function - hormones eg. insulin
- Contractile - forming contractile elements in muscles eg. actin
- Immunological - Functioning to combat invading microbes (antibodies, antitoxins)
- Transport - Acting as carrier molecules eg. carry O (haemoglobin)
- Catalytic - Catalysing all the biochemical relations in the body eg. amylase
- Sensory - Components of the nervous system including receptors and neurotransmitters
Proteins are polymers - ie. large molecules made up of repeated units (unites/monomers are amino acids)
Amino acid structure
central carbon atom with an amine (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH) and an ‘R’ group - each amino acid has a different ‘R’ group
Essential amino acids
The 9 amino acids that cannot be made by the body
Amino acid infromation
Understanding:
There are 20 different amino acids in polypeptides synthesized on ribosomes
(eg. Serine, Lysine, Proline, Tyrosine, Cysteine)
Amino acids can be found in all living things and are coded for by the DNA sequence in the ribosomes
If many amino acids are joined, a polypeptide is formed.
(there are 2 extra amino acids found in only a few polypeptides in only a few organisms:
- Selenocysteine
- Pyrrolysine)
Polypeptides
The unbranched chain of amino acids - a protein consists of a single functional polypeptide or more usually several polypeptides joined together
If many amino acids are joined, a polypeptide is formed.
Understanding:
Amino acids are linked together by condensation to form polypeptides
Understanding #2:
The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is coded for by genes
(the sequence of the bases determines the sequence of the amino acids. Three bases (a triplet code for one amino acid))
Amino acids in condensation reactions
Amino acids are joined by removing a molecule of water - ie a condensation reaction - therefore forming a peptide bond. If two amino acids are joined, a dipeptide is formed.
Equation:
Amino acid + amino acid -> dipeptide + water
Understanding:
Amino acids are linked together by condensation to form polypeptides
Amino acids in hydrolysis reactions
When a dipeptide is split a water molecule provides the hydrogen and hydroxyl group to break the peptide bond
Equation:
Dipeptide + water -> amino acid + amino acid
Understandings:
Amino acids can be linked together in any sequence giving a huge range od possible polypeptides
Understandings:
The amino acid sequence determines the 3D (three-dimensional) conformation of a protein.
Protein
A protein is a functional unit made up of more than one polypeptide chains
Understanding:
A protein may consist of a single polypeptide or more than one polypeptide linked together
Polar = a protein may be polar (eg. contain hydrophilic amino acids), these amino acids on the surface can make them water soluble (eg. some hormones) Non-polar = a protein may be non-polar (eg. contain hydrophobic amino acids), these amino acids can make them (proteins) insoluble (eg. lipase enzyme)
^ these 2 properties allow for diff. materials to pass through the protein in cell membranes and the specificity of active sites in enzymes