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Critical Thinking > Module IA: > Flashcards

Module IA: Flashcards

1
Q

Reasons, Motives, and Causes:

A

Beliefs and actions can be driven by reasons, motives, and causes, each playing distinct roles in influencing human behavior.

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2
Q

Beliefs and Actions for Reasons:

A

Believing and doing things for reasons, whether good or bad, implies a conscious and rational decision-making process.

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3
Q

Motives and Causes:

A

Motives and causes also contribute to shaping beliefs and actions, but they operate differently from reasons.

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4
Q

Direct Influence of Reasons:

A

Unlike beliefs and actions driven by motives and causes, those based on reasons can be directly affected by new knowledge and understanding of truth and falsehood.

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5
Q

Empowerment through Reasons:

A

If behavior is governed by reasons, individuals have the power to change it directly based on rational decision-making.

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6
Q

Rationality and Freedom:

A

Rationality is emphasized as a liberating force, suggesting that through rational thinking and decision-making, individuals can achieve freedom and autonomy in their beliefs and actions.

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7
Q

Argument Representation:

A

Representation of an argument involves the use of sentences as the building blocks.

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8
Q

Definition of a Sentence:

A

A sentence is defined, for present purposes, as a sequence of words starting with a capital letter and ending with a full stop.

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9
Q

Types of Sentences:

A

Sentences come in various forms, including
1. exclamatory,
2. imperative,
3. declarative,
4. interrogative, etc.

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10
Q

Simple and Compound Sentences:

A

Sentences can be simple or compound, with compound sentences formed by components that could function as standalone sentences.

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11
Q

Standard Vehicle of Reasoning:

A

Declarative sentences, which make statements or express facts, are the standard form of sentences used in the vehicle of reasoning.

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12
Q

Standard Function of Declarative Sentences:

A

The standard function of a declarative sentence is to state a fact.

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13
Q

Standard Function of Interrogative Sentences:

A

The standard function of an interrogative sentence is to ask a question.

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14
Q

Divergence of Form and Function:

A

Form and function may diverge; the form of a sentence is not always a reliable guide to its intended function.

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15
Q

Tonal Influence on Function:

A

Tonal variations, such as a rising inflection, can influence the function of a sentence.

For instance, a rising inflection can turn a declarative sentence into a question.

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16
Q

Rhetorical Questions:

A

Rhetorical questions, despite their interrogative form, function as statements of fact.

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17
Q

Interest in Function:

A

When form and function differ, the focus is on function, and sentences may be rewritten to make their function more obvious.

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18
Q

Statements:

A

A (part of a) sentence with declarative form and the fact-stating function is termed a statement.

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19
Q

Truth and Falsity of Statements:

A

If a statement accurately represents the fact it states, it is true; otherwise, it is false.

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20
Q

Concealment of Statements:

A

The divergence of form and function can lead to the concealment of statements and, consequently, reasoning.

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21
Q

Formation of Compound Statements:

A

Compound statements can be formed in various ways, and one common method is through conjunction.

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22
Q

Conjunction:

A

Conjunction involves combining two or more simple statements to create a third statement, stating that all of the simple statements (conjuncts) are true.

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23
Q

Standard Indication of Conjunction:

A

The standard indicator of a conjunction is the word ‘and,’ as seen in examples like ‘Rodney bit off the canary’s head and Charles winced.’

Other words like ‘but,’ ‘although,’ and the semi-colon ‘;’ can also serve the same logical purpose.

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24
Q

Disjunction:

A

Disjunctions are formed by combining statements with the word ‘or’ or its equivalents.

A disjunction states that at least one (and sometimes at most one) of its components (disjuncts) is true.

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25
Q

Example of Disjunction:

A

An example of disjunction is ‘Garry slurps his soup, or Harry does, or Larry does,’ which is true if at least one of its three disjuncts is true.

26
Q

Reasoning and Argument:

A

Reasoning or argumentation occurs when one statement or a set of statements is presented as proof, justification, support, or probability for another statement.

27
Q

conclusion?

A

The statement claimed to be proved, justified, or supported by the argument is called the conclusion.

28
Q

premise/s

A

Any unsupported statement from which the proving process begins is a premiss. Some authors use ‘reason’ instead of ‘premiss.’

29
Q

Categories of Conclusions:

A

Intermediate Conclusions (Subconclusions):

main conlusion

30
Q

Intermediate Conclusions (Subconclusions):

A

Statements within arguments that are supported by a premiss but, in turn, support other statements. They are the conclusions of subarguments.

31
Q

Main conclusion:

A

A conclusion with which the argument stops altogether. It is a supported statement that does not support any other.

32
Q

Example Structure:
In an argument with statements 1, 2, 3, and 4:

A
  1. Statements 1 and 3 are premisses.
  2. Statement 2 is an intermediate conclusion (subconclusion).
  3. Statement 4 is the main conclusion.
  4. The move from 1 to 2 and the move from 2 & 3 to 4 are both subarguments.
33
Q

Minimum Requirements for an Argument:

A

An argument must contain at least one premiss (unsupported statement supporting another) and at least one main conclusion (supported statement not supporting any other).

It may or may not include intermediate conclusions.

34
Q

Inference Indicator:

A

An inference indicator is a word or phrase, such as ‘because,’ ‘so,’ ‘it follows that,’ etc., often indicating a connection of inference between statements in an argument.

35
Q

Types of Inference Indicators:

A

premise and conclusion

36
Q

Premiss Indicators:

A

Words or phrases like ‘since’ that signal the upcoming presentation of a premiss.

37
Q

Conclusion Indicators:

A

Words or phrases like ‘so’ that signal the upcoming presentation of a conclusion.

38
Q

Usefulness and Limitations:

A

Inference indicators are a good sign of the presence of an argument, but they are not infallible.

Their presence does not guarantee the existence of an argument, and judgment is needed to interpret them accurately.

39
Q

No Inference Indicators:

A

Words like ‘and,’ ‘but,’ ‘moreover,’ ‘also,’ etc., are NOT inference indicators and do not necessarily signal the presence of an argument.

40
Q

Barriers to Recognition of Argument:
Identifying arguments can be challenging due to various barriers: 6

A
  1. Open-Ended Inference Indicators:
    The list of inference indicators is not complete and can vary.
  2. Contextual Ambiguity:
    - Words may function differently in different contexts; their role as an inference indicator may change.
  3. Absence of Inference Indicators:
    - Arguments may exist without explicit indicators, making detection challenging.
  4. Complex Sentence Structures:
    - Multiple premisses and conclusions might be present in a single sentence, and their separation can be obscured.
  5. Omitted Conclusions:
    Conclusions are sometimes omitted, especially when they are considered obvious.
  6. Divergence Between Form and Function:
    Form and function may not align perfectly, leading to potential confusion.
41
Q

Challenges with Inference Indicators: 2

A
  1. Variability in Function:
    A word like ‘as’ can function as an inference indicator or have a different meaning in various contexts.
  2. Unclear Cases:
    Ambiguous cases make it challenging to determine the presence of reasoning, and the answer may be indeterminate.
42
Q

Complex Sentence Structures:

A

Noun Phrases as Statements:

Separable components of an argument may be contained within a single sentence, and noun phrases can represent statements

43
Q

Omitted Conclusions: 2

A
  1. Obvious Conclusions:
    Sometimes conclusions are omitted when they are considered obvious, adding to the difficulty of identifying arguments.
  2. Unclear Conclusions:
    In cases where the intended conclusion is unclear, the absence of a conclusion may contribute to ambiguity.
44
Q

Divergence Between Form and Function:

A

The discrepancy between the form (structure) and function (meaning) of sentences can create confusion when trying to identify arguments.

45
Q

‘A premiss is a statement in an argument which is unsupported (within that argument/piece of reasoning) which is intended to support a conclusion.’

A

TRUE

46
Q

An argument which is part of a larger argument is a sub-argument. A sub-argument can have as its conclusion the larger argument’s main conclusion.’

A

TRUE

47
Q

‘Every argument must contain at least one intermediate conclusion.’

A

FALSE

48
Q

Every statement in an argument is a premiss.’

A

FALSE

49
Q

f you create a disjunction out of two statements, you form a new compound statement which says that at least one of the two is true.’

A

TRUE

50
Q

‘Inference indicators divide into premiss indicators and conclusion indicators.’

A

TRUE

51
Q

‘Statements can be true or false.’ Is this statement true?

A

YES …Well done. Here’s a harder question:

“This statement is false.” Is this statement true?

Check out the Liar Paradox

52
Q

‘When two or more simple statements are combined into a compound statement which says that all of the simple statements are true, the compound statement is a disjunction.’

A

FALSE - In this case, the compound statement would be a conjunction.

52
Q

‘The same statement can be both a conclusion from one set of premisses and a premiss for a further conclusion.’

A

TRUE

53
Q

‘You can always tell whether or not an argument is being put forward by looking for the presence or absence of inference indicators.’

A

FALSE

54
Q

“Whenever it is an inference indicator, the word ‘because’ is a premiss indicator.’

A

TRUE

55
Q

In “Sarah wanted to go bungee-jumping but her father was against it”, ‘but’ is functioning in such a way as to form an:

A

CONJUNCTION

56
Q

Is the word ‘since’ a premiss indicator?

A

SOMETIMES

57
Q

Reasoning is standardly represented in which kind of sentences?

A

DECLARATIVE

58
Q

The sentence ‘Judy, stop the car at the next corner!’ is of which form?

A

IMPERATIVE

59
Q

The simple component statements of a conjunction are its:

A

CONJUNCTS

60
Q

The standard function of a sentence in interrogative form, such as ‘What was the year of the Battle of Agincourt?’, is to ask a question. Is form an infallible guide to function?

A

NO

61
Q

Within an argument, an inferred statement is always a:

A

CONCLUSION

Critical Thinking (18 decks)

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